Coaching from a junior and senior perspective creates more of a spectrum, making it less easy to say for certain whether someone is being a ‘good sport’. If a player has every factor but fairness, does that make them a ‘bad sport’? This is why Abad, (2010) believes that there must be a found balance of all factors to ensure that someone is displaying good sportsmanship.

While good sportsmanship is paramount to junior level athletes, the importance starts to fade amongst most as they grow and experience the game more and more. Especially in basketball, it is unlikely that someone will play at an elite level without experiencing some sort of gamesmanship toward them. Gamesmanship can be defined as an attempt to win one game by playing another (Howe, (2004)). An example scenario from a coaches perspective could be cheating through table official manipulation. In England there is a huge shortage of table officials, and so in the past there have been teams that use their own officials, who will attempt to score the game unfairly or distribute fouls incorrectly on the scoresheet.

Perspectives on sportsmanship have wavered throughout the years while coaching at any level. Coaching elite basketball could bring out a more competitive side, resulting in a coach using whatever methods they have at hand to create an advantage. This isn't necessarily the correct mentality, but it could give a team leverage to create more positive results, to which surely the opposition should do the same. It could be assumed that if a coach doesn’t employ extra strategies to give themself the edge, the opposition will do the same, leaving them at a disadvantage to start the game with.

This stance is supported by Leota et al, (2020), who believe that gamesmanship is actually a ‘strategic excellence’ and should be utilised to maximum potential. This means that ‘talking trash’ and stirring opposition players to try and make them miss free throws, for example, are good strategies to give the friendly side the edge in those close games that may be decided by that one free throw.

On the other hand, it must be clarified that this is strictly in a senior/elite environment. Coaching at an Under 14s/16s level differs largely. Coaches tend to preach sportsmanship and the importance of it, even when competing in Jr National Basketball League or above, for example. Deci et al, (2000) believe that you are developing characters, not just players. This means that you must install certain values to allow them to be autonomous in their decision making, developing said character. This is supported by Weiss, (1987), who discusses the importance of building characters while teaching the youth whatever sport is being coached.

If there is anything to highlight when thinking about teaching sportsmanship, it is the workings of Weiss, (1987). This is because no matter how we teach these values, it's important that coaches know that you aren't just building players, but people.

References:

Keating, J. W. (1964). Sportsmanship as a moral category. Ethics, 75(1), 25-35.

Abad, D. (2010). Sportsmanship. Sport, ethics and philosophy, 4(1), 27-41.

Howe, L. A. (2004). Gamesmanship. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 31(2), 212-225.

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary educational psychology, 25(1), 54-67.

Weiss, M. R. (1987). Teaching sportsmanship and values. Handbook for youth sport coaches, 137-151.

Impression management refers to how we as coaches present ourselves to others. Often times we will exert confident, leader-like personality traits to gain the respect of our peers, while that might not be a helpful indicator of the person we are. Impression Management is defined by efforts by an actor to create, maintain, protect, or otherwise alter an image held by a target audience (Bozeman et al. (1997)).

Goffman, (2004) suggests that impression management is run by a dramaturgical approach, as if people’s impressions of you are based upon and effected by a performance-like expression from you.

This concept is split into six dimensions (Shulman, (2016)). Those being:

-       People are performers.

-       People perform differently in different social spaces.

-       People work collectively and in teams to express this almost façade.

-       The delivery of a credible performance is the priority of the performer.

-       People avoid ‘breaking character’ or taking any contradictory actions to their expressed impression.

A confident coach may feel as if their effort into impression management is very minimal by way of naturalism. They can express themselves freely without constraint, and most of their players (if not all) buy into what they are saying regardless of how they put messages across. However, if the same coach was coaching at a junior level instead, everything about them has to change. They may put out a more vibrant, energetic façade to keep them engaged and interested the whole time. The use of humour may be more prominent to try to keep sessions happy and joyful.

At a senior level, a calm, respectful but loud and clear coach could use these characteristics to their advantage when needed. For example, if something is really going wrong, behavioural or otherwise, they could switch on their temper and switch it off as a tool to ensure people are listening. The initial surprise of the players allows them to encapsulate what they need to say without worrying about whether or not people are listening, because they are. The hard part is keeping the balance throughout the dilemmas faced, controlling anger and maintaining confidence throughout difficult times (Jones, (2006)). The urge to lose tempers, be disrespectful to officials, and be a bad example of a role model is sometimes strong, but a strong coach will do a good job of controlling this.

Imagine a scenario where a junior coach reflects their bad personality traits onto players. The image they portray should be appropriate to the aims of the role, which from a developmental approach would be a positive, good sportsman who has a growth mindset. This is all important as many theories of learning suggest young people look toward their role models for suggestions on how to behave (Pierce & Bandura, (1977)). Therefore, a certain impression is required to encourage character building, as is ultimately important at junior levels in sport and elsewhere.

Ultimately, coaches have their own styles to achieve certain objectives. Jones, (2006) therefore needs to be prioritised when evaluating how to manage the impressions set towards players.

References:

Bozeman, D. P. et al. (1997). A cybernetic model of impression management processes in organizations. Organizational behavior and human decision processes, 69(1), 9-30.

Goffman, E. (2004). The arts of impression management. Organization identity: A reader, 11-12.

Shulman, D. (2016). The presentation of self in contemporary social life. Sage Publications.

Jones, R. (2006). Dilemmas, maintaining “face,” and paranoia: An average coaching life. Qualitative inquiry, 12(5), 1012-1021.

Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1977). Social learning theory(Vol. 1). Prentice Hall: Englewood cliffs.

Furthermore, specialised training schemes that consider physiological differences can maximise performance and reduce injury risk. Coaches may establish an atmosphere that maximises the potential of all athletes, regardless of gender, by recognising and embracing these differences.

Coaching the opposite sex has several advantages for coaches as well as athletes. Being exposed to a range of viewpoints encourages empathy and inclusivity, which enhances the coaching experience and encourages personal development. Coaching athletes of the other sex can improve their performance by developing their ability to think strategically and adapt. Working with athletes who have diverse skill sets and strategies/habits forces coaches to hone their tactics, which makes them more adaptable and successful in their positions.

At any level, restrictions should be made to ensure there is no ill-minded activity between the coach and players. Norman, (2016) suggests that the relations between a coach and their players is delicate and needs to be respectful and have boundaries where necessary. For example, where a coach may discuss tactics in a changing room, this isn’t appropriate for a coach of the opposite sex. This can create difficulties, and coaches must adapt to the situation they are presented with in order to be versatile.

In addition, mentoring athletes of the other sex advances the larger objective of gender equality in sport. In order to advance gender equality in the basketball community and beyond, coaches are essential in combatting barriers between genders and creating equal opportunity for all athletes.

Basketball coaches that work with players of different sexes must take a comprehensive approach, recognising and addressing the special opportunities and problems that come with this dynamic. Through the development of an inclusive culture, modification of communication tactics, and customisation of training regimens, coaches may enable athletes of all genders to realise their maximum potential both on and off the court.
In addition to improving their own teaching skills, coaches who accept diversity and work towards gender equality in sports also contribute to a more welcoming and equitable sports environment.

References:

Kalin, J. L., & Waldron, J. J. (2015). Preferences toward gender of coach and perceptions of roles of basketball coaches. International Journal of Exercise Science, 8(4), 1.

Childs, M. L. (2010). Perceived and preferred coach communication behaviors of cross-country athletes according to gender.

Pedersen, A. V., Aksdal, I. M., & Stalsberg, R. (2019). Scaling demands of soccer according to anthropometric and physiological sex differences: a fairer comparison of men’s and women’s soccer. Frontiers in psychology, 10, 453820.

Cherubini, J. (2019). Strategies and communication skills in sports coaching.

Norman, L. (2016). Is there a need for coaches to be more gender responsive? A review of the evidence. International Sport Coaching Journal, 3(2), 192-196.

Behaviourism relates to three main sub-theories, classical conditioning, operant conditioning and observational learning/social learning Theory. These are two different styles, operant relating to behaviour and the consequence, and classical relating to associational learning (Kirsch et al, (2004)).

Operant Conditioning (OC) refers to a theory of learning that includes the use of positive/negative reinforcement/punishment to encourage or discourage a certain behaviour (Skinner, 1971). This is used in day-to-day activity, and even through token economy. Token Economy refers to the use of merits and rewards to drive people’s behaviour in certain ways. For example, in a classroom, token economy such as house points is used to encourage certain behaviours.

With OC, we are trying to obtain certain behaviours when learning skills in sport. The way we apply it may differ depending on the athlete and their demands and preferred way of learning. Let’s say an athlete does something desirable in a training session. If we want this behaviour to be reproduced in future, we may use positive reinforcement, such as a compliment on said skill to ensure they know you value it. However, we could also use a negative reinforcement, such as taking away a punishment as a reward for producing desired behaviour.

To contrast this, if an athlete is producing behaviour that is undesirable, such as a bad attitude, we can use punishment to discourage said behaviours. A positive punishment could be to make them do push-ups or run. A negative punishment could be to take away playing time from the athlete until the behaviour is no longer produced.

Token economy refers to the system of rewarding desirable behaviour with 'tokens' (McLaughlin et al. 1988). These tokens can be anything, tangible or not. They can be used to redeem rewards or privileges, and again these don't have to be tangible (e.g. the winner of a certain game getting a chocolate bar).

Classical Conditioning (CC) is more on the topic of learning through association. This theory was made prominent by Pavlov, (1897) who used this theory to teach dogs to associate the noise of a bell with food, causing a salivatory response without the presence of food. The process involves an unconditioned stimulus which creates the desired response, then is paired with a neutral stimulus that does not yet elicit any response. Only then, due to the presence of the neutral stimulus previously, the neutral stimulus alone causes the same response, now conditioned. The middleman of the unconditioned stimulus is then removed without effect on the output.

This can be applied to a sport coaching environment by associating the presence of certain stimulus with desired responses, for example if a football player sees a gap in the defence around the box, they associate that with a good shot opportunity, therefore giving them the idea to shoot. Another example could be in the film, Coach Carter. The coach would make his players run every time they were late, resulting in them learning to be on time, as they knew the consequence.

Social Learning Theory (SLT) revolves around behaviour reproduced/imitated after a role model of undefined authority produces behaviour (Bandura et al, (1961)). Bandura et al conducted a study in which children observed a role model showing physical forms of aggression towards a doll. They found that children were likely to imitate the behaviour, possibly due to a few factors.

The first factor is the effect of the role model. Whether the role model is a coach, a teacher or a parent, children learn to imitate behaviour through seeing behaviour and encoding it in their own mind. The presence of a role model seems to make the difference, as these same children in a follow up study did not imitate behaviour without the presence of a role model/authoritative figure.

The second factor is the model proposed by Bandura et al. They found that behaviour followed four steps: Observation, Retention, Imitation and Motivation. In a sport setting, it would be a case of the athlete firstly observing the behaviour desired by the coach, such as a good pass in football. The athlete would sub-consciously retain the key parts needed to recreate the skill/behaviour. This could be the straightened shoulders, the follow through on the ball etc. To follow this, the athlete will reproduce the skill or behaviour to the best of their ability. The final stage, motivation, dictates whether the behaviour is held on to, or modified to perfect the skill/behaviour. For example, if a coach sees the athlete reproducing the forward pass in football, they may give some feedback, giving the athlete motivation to either increase the repetition of the skill/behaviour or decrease.

Blocked and random practice in their own regard can link together these learning theories to create effective learning amongst athletes. According to Merbah et al, (2011), blocked practice links to a lack of variability between the drills used to help athletes learn. For example, one skill is practiced one way, like a layup in basketball. The emphasis would be on recreating the same skill over and over. Random practice would follow the script of being unpredictable, forcing athletes to react and adapt to the constantly changing environment. However, Smeeton et al, (2005) suggested that there was an almost spectrum like approach, where blocked variable practice is possible. While the trend does go from low variability and blocked practice to high variability and random practice, there is a grey area that can be explored in accordance with the learning theories previously discussed to create an environment ideal for athletes to learn.

References:

Kirsch, I., Lynn, S. J., Vigorito, M., & Miller, R. R. (2004). The role of cognition in classical and operant conditioning. Journal of clinical psychology, 60(4), 369-392

Skinner, B. F. (1971). Operant conditioning. The encyclopedia of education, 7, 29-33.

McLaughlin, T. F., & Williams, R. L. (1988). The token economy. In Handbook of behavior therapy in education (pp. 469-487). Boston, MA: Springer US.

Pavlov, I. (1897). Classical conditioning. Wikipedia.[Paper reference 1].

Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(3), 575.

Merbah, S., & Meulemans, T. (2011). Learning a motor skill: Effects of blocked versus random practice. A review. Psychologica Belgica, 51.

Smeeton, N. J., Williams, A. M., Hodges, N. J., & Ward, P. (2005). The relative effectiveness of various instructional approaches in developing anticipation skill. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 11(2), 98.

It's important to understand learning difficulties in detail before getting into methods of coaching.  A variety of conditions are included in the definition of learning disabilities, which impact a person's capacity to successfully acquire, process, or retain information. Conditions such as dyslexia, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are among the most recognized learning disabilities (Prior, 2022).

Despite having a normal Intellect and access to standard education, dyslexia is a learning disability characterised by difficulties with reading, spelling, and writing. Dyslexic athletes may find it difficult to read playbooks or game plans, understand written instructions, or interpret written coach feedback. These issues may make it more difficult for them to understand complex game circumstances and to communicate with coaches and teammates.

ASD is a neurodevelopmental condition that impacts behaviour, communication, and social interaction. In team sports, athletes with ASD may find it difficult to read nonverbal cues, maintain eye contact, and comprehend social cues. They might also engage in repetitive tasks or have a strong concentration on a particular subject, which could hinder their capacity to adjust to shifting game conditions or follow team tactics.

The neurological disorder known as ADHD is defined by impulsivity, hyperactivity, and inattention (American Psychological Association [APA]). ADHD-afflicted athletes may find it challenging to retain concentrate during training or competitions, pay attention to details, and obey directions. Additionally, they could have trouble controlling their impulses, which could result in impulsive choices made on the pitch or difficulty controlling their emotions in environments of competition.

Challenges Athletes with Learning Disabilities Face:

Athletes with learning disorders may face a number of difficulties that could affect their entire sports experience and performance. These obstacles could involve issues with:

1.    Processing Instructions: Learning-disabled athletes may find it difficult to comprehend complex instructions quickly, which can cause misunderstandings or confusion during practice or competition.

2.    Focus and Attention: People with ADHD may have trouble focusing and paying attention for prolonged periods of time, which can make it difficult for them to stay involved in practices or games.

3.    Planning and Organisation: Athletes with learning difficulties may find it more difficult to plan and organise work, which can negatively affect their capacity to properly manage their schedules, equipment, and techniques.

4.    Social Interaction: It can be difficult for certain athletes with learning difficulties to interact with others, making it difficult to communicate effectively with coaches, teammates, and officials.

Coaches can use a variety of tailored methods to effectively coach athletes with learning difficulties. These tactics could consist of:

1.    Clear Communication: When giving directions, be brief and direct. You can also reinforce key concepts with graphics or footage.

2.    Individualised feedback: Give athletes specific comments and appreciation for their achievements, emphasising their strengths rather than their flaws.

3.    Divide Up the Work into Doable Steps: Divide difficult drills or skills into smaller, more doable steps so that athletes can become proficient with each one before moving on to the next.

4.    Include Physical and Visual Learning Methods: To accommodate various learning styles and improve understanding, make use of visual aids, demonstrations, and hands-on activities.

5.    Establish Routine and Structure: To make athletes with learning difficulties feel more at ease and organised, establish a structured training environment with regular schedules and procedures.

6.    Encourage a Positive Team Culture: To create a sense of acceptance and belonging among the athletes, promote teamwork, collaboration, and mutual support.

Advocating for athletes with learning difficulties and creating support networks is a vital part of guaranteeing their success, in addition to putting good coaching techniques into practice. When it comes to promoting inclusive practices, resources, and regulations among sports organisations and governing bodies, coaches can be quite influential. Through raising awareness and developing understanding of learning difficulties, coaches can contribute to the development of a more welcoming and encouraging atmosphere for all athletes.

A combination of patience, compassion, and specialised coaching methods are needed when working with athletes that have learning difficulties. Coaches can enable players to excel in sports and other activities by comprehending the obstacles they encounter, employing efficient coaching techniques, and promoting the establishment of support networks. Regardless of a player's learning style, coaches may make the experience more equal and fulfilling for all players by embracing diversity and inclusivity (Thurston et al, (2021)).

The importance of self-awareness is paramount when coaching athletes with learning difficulties, as the coach needs to be aware that what works for one person may not work for another. It is great to have solutions for those with learning difficulties, but Turner et al, (2018) suggest that it is important to acknowledge the individual differences between people as a whole, allowing for versatility in coaches.

References:

Clark, M., & Parette, P. (2002). Student athletes with learning disabilities: A model for effective supports. College Student Journal, 36(1).

Prior, M. (2022). Understanding specific learning difficulties. Psychology Press.

Thurston, R. J., Alexander, D. M., & Michaud, M. (2021). Practical considerations for coaching athletes with learning disabilities and neurodevelopmental disorders. International Sport Coaching Journal, 9(2), 244-251.

Turner, T., Lucas, M., & Whitaker, C. (2018). Peer supervision in coaching and mentoring: A versatile guide for reflective practice. Routledge.

American Psychological Association [APA], https://www.apa.org/topics/adhd

Personal Construct Theory (PCT) was first brought around by Kelly, (1970). According to PCT, people organise their knowledge and experiences into a set of mental structures that influence how they behave and interact with others. Each person has these subjective, distinctive constructs that shape the way they see the world.

When it comes to coaching sports, PCT provides important information on the coach-athlete relationship and the value of coaching techniques. Coaches create meaning through their evaluations of players, their abilities, and the methods for development. Their coaching approaches are influenced by the constructs they create from their observations, interactions, and experiences with athletes.

Recognising the athlete as an active participant in the coaching process is an important part of PCT in sports coaching. Every athlete possesses a unique set of concepts that are formed by their past experiences, abilities, and self-perceptions. Effective coaches are aware of these unique structures and modify their techniques to consider different points of view of their players.

Additionally, PCT emphasises the value of communication and feedback in coaching. Athletes receive ongoing feedback from their coaches, which helps them refine their performance and constructs. Athletes need this feedback loop to modify how they view themselves and their abilities, which will ultimately result in improvement.

Trait Theory suggests that some personality traits are innate and determined, affecting a person's behaviour in various environments. According to this theory, people are born with stable traits that make them more likely to act a certain way in every situation. Trait theory provides insights on coaching methods, leadership attributes, and the dynamics between coaches and athletes in the context of sports coaching.

Trait Theory is characterised by 5 main principles (McCrae et al, (1992)).

1.      Openness to Experience – How inventive you are and the measure of liking different experiences.

2.      Conscientiousness – Self-discipline, how organised and ready you are.

3.      Extraversion – How outgoing/talkative you are as a person, and how you deal with the company of others.

4.      Agreeableness – How friendly, compassionate, and kind you are.

5.      Emotional Stability – The ability to keep control over your emotions and not be overly sensitive to others, while remaining not insensitive.

Successful coaches are frequently considered to have traits like empathy, resilience, leadership, and communication skills. Strong leadership qualities enable coaches to successfully guide and encourage their athletes, pushing them to reach their maximum potential. Similarly, effective communication abilities allow coaches to explain instructions, give evaluations, and establish a connection with their players, creating an enjoyable coaching atmosphere.

The importance of self-awareness for coaches is highlighted by trait theory. Coaches may change their approach to better suit the demands of their athletes by being aware of how their own personality traits affect their style of coaching. A basketball coach with a high degree of compassion, for example, might be better at offering athletes emotional support through difficult circumstances, whereas a coach who is naturally assertive may have to adapt their behaviour to suit more introverted athletes.

In a basketball setting, it is often found that different athletes react to situations in a wildly disproportionate way. It is a high emotion game, where loudness and crowd noise etc can really play a part in the outcome. If a coach isn’t sensitive enough, they may end up upsetting a player. For example, many athletes find it hard to gain playing time mid-season, and so their emotions get the best of them, and it creates a rift between the player and coach. This isn’t beneficial for either, and so to fix this the coach needs to be more responsive/comprehending, but also more concise in the reasoning for the playing time being so sparse.

In conclusion, the importance of self-awareness as a coach is paramount to a team’s success and athlete development. Depending on the environment and goals of the coach, the impression management needs to adapt and be able to accommodate to fit the athlete’s demands. If a coach was to work with younger athletes, the approach may need to be softer and more receptive to the types of personalities (Czajkowski, (2010)).

References:

Czajkowski, Z. B. I. G. N. I. E. W. (2010). Coach’s work, knowledge, skills and personality. Stud Phys Culture Tourism, 17(2), 131-137.

Kelly, G. A. (1970). A brief introduction to personal construct theory. Perspectives in personal construct theory, 1(29), 1-25.

McCrae, R. R., & John, O. P. (1992). An introduction to the five‐factor model and its applications. Journal of personality, 60(2), 175-215.

Nutt Williams, E. (2008). A psychotherapy researcher's perspective on therapist self-awareness and self-focused attention after a decade of research. Psychotherapy research, 18(2), 139-146.

Many different theories and models try to explain how athletes learn, but one of the most prominent is Fitts and Posner's three-stage model, which outlines the stages of autonomous, associative, and cognitive learning, is a well-known approach. According to Fitts and Posner (1967), this model highlights the progressive transition from conscious, difficult processing to automatic, fluid performance through practice and experience. In a basketball setting, this would be the transition from learning the basics (i.e shooting form, basic rules and techniques) to competing at a high level, refining skills such as court awareness and situational intelligence.

Providing nonlinear pedagogy as an approach to coaching is another framework that has been widespread as an effective way of learning. This highlights the role of task, individual, and environmental constraints in shaping skill acquisition. By manipulating constraints such as equipment, rules, and task complexity, coaches can aid skill development and enhance versatility in athletes (Davids et al., 2008).

Another theory is the Ecological Dynamics approach, which highlights how the environment, task, and performance interact to shape how skills are acquired. This theory, proposed by Araujo et al., (2011) states that skill develops through a fluid coupling of perception and action in a particular context, with the person constantly adjusting to the environmental informational limitations. An example of this concept could be limiting the areas on the court that are available to a player, or encouraging them to keep the ball on one side of the court throughout a drill.

Instead of depending just on direct instruction or correction, athletes can experience and learn from mistakes made during practice through error-based learning. Coaches help athletes develop their independence and skill by letting them assess problems on their own and find solutions (Henderlong Corpus et al., 2010). An example of this could be giving players a drill called ‘crunch time’. In basketball terms, crunch time simulates the end of a close game. There are certain strategies to employ in a real setting, such as intentionally fouling, advancing the ball down the court and using the time to ‘burn the clock’. The idea is to give players the situation (‘Your team is down by 4 points with 2 minutes to go in the game, what do you do?), and see how they react independently. If they make a mistake there, it doesn’t carry the same consequence that it would in an actual game, where the coach may not be able to call a time-out to guide you. The onus is on the players to communicate and find solutions to either hold the lead for 2 minutes or regain the lead.

Individual differences can massively affect how effective skill acquisition is for athletes. Every athlete has their own style, personality, and preferred methods of learning. No one athlete works the same as the next athlete, and so any framework or theory can be ineffective if not used correctly. Other differences include age, ability, and intelligence. For example, a younger athlete may pick up a dribbling pattern in basketball quickly but lack game intelligence due to little to no experience. On the other hand, an older player may be less versatile in learning new skills, needing more concise feedback and practice variations to aid acquisition (Baker et al., 2004).

In addition, motivating factors that promote effort and involvement in the process of learning a skill include intrinsic motivation, confidence, and goal orientation. Intrinsically driven athletes with a growth mentality are more likely to persevere through difficulties and show improved skill development over time (Deci et al., 2000).

References:

Araújo, D., & Davids, K. (2011). What exactly is acquired during skill acquisition? Journal of Consciousness Studies, 18(3-4), 7-23.

Baker, J., & Horton, S. (2004). A review of primary and secondary influences on sport expertise. High Ability Studies, 15(2), 211-228.

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227-268.

Davids, K., Button, C., & Bennett, S. J. (2008). Dynamics of skill acquisition: A constraints-led approach. Human Kinetics.

Fitts, P. M., & Posner, M. I. (1967). Human Performance. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Henderlong Corpus, J., & O'Connell, M. (2010). Empirical support for an integrative model of intrinsic motivation and domain-specific achievement orientations. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(2), 375-381.

Pi, Y. L., Wu, X. H., Wang, F. J., Liu, K., Wu, Y., Zhu, H., & Zhang, J. (2019). Motor skill learning induces brain network plasticity: A diffusion-tensor imaging study. PLoS One, 14(2), e0210015.

Personally, I feel as if I have a lot of experience to support me considering my age. I began coaching at 17, as my Under 18’s coach invited me down to help with the juniors. Since then, I have found that I possess many of the attributes that someone might look for in a coach, whether that be at a junior or senior level. Coaching is something that I have always wanted to do, and as a result I was brought onto this course. As a 2^nd year student that did a different course before instead of 1^st year, I have found adapting very easy and I am excited to finish the course. This will land me with a Bsc Undergraduate degree in Sports Coaching and Performance.

Coaching wise, I am currently in the process of finishing my Level 2 Basketball England Coach qualification. This allows me to begin my Level 3, which focuses on more elite level coaching and an in-depth portfolio to show your views and experiences. I currently coach the UCLan Men’s teams, alongside Craig Wright, competing in Tier 1 and Tier 3 in BUCS. I also coach the Men’s 3^rd Team at Preston Basketball Club.

Short-Term Goals:

In the upcoming season, I have been offered a paid opportunity to coach the Cardinal Newman College Basketball Academy. They boast a rich history and a real dedication to helping the College and athletes get results. This would be paired with some pastoral support for students at the college, to ensure a healthy balance of work and sport.

I also plan on coaching the 2^nd Team at UCLan, as we won the league this season, only losing 1 game. I believe this team has great talent and the ability to compete under my coaching in BUCS Tier 3.

Medium-Term Goals:

The first goal involves me coaching at Myerscough College. They have an NBL Division 2 team, alongside an award-winning academy that competes in the EYBL, a league throughout Europe. This would be great as it would allow me to create new connections, experience new players, set ups, countries and much more.

I would jump at the opportunity to coach with a professional team, as the whole environment is currently growing, and more coaches will be needed in and around the BBL. The style of coaching these days is in the midst of changing, as a ‘new style’ helped London Lions dominate this season. I believe that I provide fresh perspectives on issues that have been dealt with differently for quite some time. I think this could help me find a job role amongst the professionals. I also speak French, and so I will be looking for opportunities abroad where I can further my experience and develop into a knowledgeable and versatile coach.

Long-Term Goals:

Another option would be to set up a club. There is currently no basketball representation in Wigan and surrounding areas, which I would love to encourage and nurture into an environment where we create a talent pathway from junior to senior elite level. I have interest from others and funding from people interested in similar development as I am.

The next option is something that I will be exploring simultaneously to the other goals. I would really like to get into Performance Analysis (PA), maybe getting a full-time job somewhere with progression available. PA is something that I did for the 2^nd Team at UCLan this season, and I found myself to really enjoy working with athletes from a coaching standpoint and an analytical standpoint to maximise performance. I have a contact who is currently searching for PA’s and Psychology experts to provide Team GB Cycling and Tennis with new perspectives. An opportunity in that kind of environment would be exceptional.

In conclusion, for the first time in my life, I am confident in where I am and the direction I want to go in. I know I have flaws in my coaching, I’m still young and inexperienced compared to my peers in the community. This won’t stop me from learning as much as I can while I am at university, and then using that to propel myself forward into whatever I end up doing in future.

References:

Lunenburg, F. C. (2011). Goal-setting theory of motivation. International journal of management, business, and administration, 15(1), 1-6.

What Mr Taylor does exceptionally well is discuss tough issues about elite environments and the problems that gamesmanship produces. Howe, (2004) suggests that gamesmanship is a deliberate strategy of competition that has certain paradoxical outcomes, which might produce an enhanced competitive environment. This calls forth superior performances from participants. The question that Howe, (2004) proposes is “What are you prepared to do to win?”. Elite settings focus on the task of winning. If a coach isn’t winning games, they won’t be appointed as the coach for much longer. Football is a prime example, such as Thomas Tuchel getting fired from Chelsea alongside his coaching staff due to a shortage of wins/points. For this reason, it is very difficult to promote sportsmanship in the same way as it is in development level sport. This then begs the question, “If they aren’t showing good sportsmanship, why should we?”. If Howe, (2004) is correct, surely the other team has an advantage if you are the only team displaying good sportsmanship?

In a development setting, coaching is commonly driven by the desire to shape individuals rather than players, ability often being an added product rather than a focus (Vickers, 2011). Mr Taylor does a great job of displaying the responsibility involved in sportsmanship from the coach. They touch on the fact that it is the coach’s job to liaise with the players and parents, and that these young minds are more easily led than older, more developed minds. This is supported by Moston, (1987) who found that children were significantly more suggestible to different ideas that were not their own in an interview. This is important as it highlights the impact that a coach can potentially have on a child, whether that is sport related, home-life related or even school related.

The line is and always will be unclear as to when and where we toggle our good sportsmanship on and off. This is why it is especially important as a coach to ensure they are versatile enough to adapt to a different setting (for example, Daniel Byrne going from coaching in the BBL to coaching a university women’s development squad). Mr Taylor did a splendid job of highlighting key issues, while defining what it means to ‘be a good sport’ to the best of his capacity. The use of the other end of the spectrum, and the ‘devils advocate’ approach really makes the reader question whether displaying good sportsmanship will always provide good results or not.

References:

Abad, D. (2010). Sportsmanship. Sport, ethics and philosophy, 4(1), 27-41.

Howe, L. A. (2004). Gamesmanship. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 31(2), 212-225.

Moston, S. (1987). The suggestibility of children in interview studies. First Language, 7(19), 67-78.

Vickers, B., & Schoenstedt, L. (2011). Coaching development: Methods for youth sport introduction. Strategies, 24(4), 14-19

Pfeiffer et al, (2006) suggested that there was a rather high dropout rate in high school females as their sporting journey develops into more elite/competitive environments. This is also supported by Weiss et al, (1992), who found that throughout a longitudinal study, females participation went from competitive to recreational as they developed. What Mr Phillips does is discusses these issues head on, providing useful insights to allow solutions to be created thereon. Mr Phillips mentions the pressure to embrace physical differences whilst being scrutinised for those same differences. This is really prevalent today as now more than ever, female sport is the focus of media as a whole.

Mr Phillips focuses a lot more on the media side of female sport. This is due to the fact that media feeds consumers from an elite level all the way down to a recreational/grassroots level. This means that media exposes the majority of females to these issues and pressures that females in sport face. However, it is important that the positive side is also touched upon. Iowa State vs University of Connecticut faced each other in the NCAA Women’s Semi-Final recently. This was the most watched all female sporting event of all time and had more viewers than every Men’s NBA Game bar one. This suggests that now more than ever, media needs to be portraying female sport participation in a positive light, encouraging younger athletes to work hard towards the sport they are passionate about. Instead, the limelight is being used to promote stereotyping, sexualisation and demeaning of females (de Oliveira et al, 2022). They found that The Sun, The Guardian and The Times were all accused multiple times of not following rules that ensure sexism isn’t presented, in multiple ways.

On the other hand, it is important that this is approached from both ways, and in terms of coaching. A male coaching a female team needs to be self-aware, and respect certain boundaries to ensure a safe sporting environment. It is essential that both females coaching males and vice versa is discussed, as the media links into higher levels of just that. If Mr Phillips linked this into his argument, this would provide a more holistic approach to how coaches use their understanding of stereotypes and stigmatisations to break down barriers and normalise these things.

Overall, Mr Phillips does an amazing job of highlighting current issues in coaching the opposite sex, fully explaining why these misconceptions and stereotypes exist, while providing perspectives from all parties involved. This means that their piece can be used to find solutions in coaching and make sure the approaches we use are appropriate and promote a desirable sporting environment.

References:

Pfeiffer, K. A., Dowda, M., Dishman, R. K., McIver, K. L., Sirard, J. R., Ward, D. S., & Pate, R. R. (2006). Sport participation and physical activity in adolescent females across a four-year period. Journal of adolescent health, 39(4), 523-529

de Oliveira, J. R., de Oliveira Souza, M. T., & Capraro, A. M. (2022). Media coverage and public opinion of hosting a women’s football mega-event: The English bid for UEFA Women’s Euro 2022. Sport in Society, 25(4), 799-818.

Weiss, M. R., & Glenn, S. D. (1992). Psychological development and females' sport participation: An interactional perspective. Quest, 44(2), 138-157.

Mr Davies discusses both self and social personality theories. This is really helpful as it provides a holistic approach to self-awareness and how it comes across to athletes. However, they could boost their representation on this matter by using different perspectives. They present the work of Thagard, (2014) very well, highlighting what it is and defining self-individuality very effectively. To support this, they could use the work of Gallager, (2013). Gallagher found similar, in that there are multiple levels of self-awareness, pertaining to conceptions made by oneself and other people. This means that as a coach, these ideals and experiences can be used to adapt the way we approach certain situations. For example, if a coach was to go from leading a team of their friends/people they’ve known for a while, their mannerisms and the way they perceive themselves would be largely contrasted by how they would coach a young group of athletes, whom the coach does not know.

Mr Davies provides an interesting thought on needing to maintain the self-awareness that coaches develop. This is very important, as coaches should be able to be versatile while remembering how they want to be perceived to certain groups. If one was to lose sight of this, it could provide different perspectives to be developed by those who they coach in future. This might not promote a comfortable and helpful coaching environment, as the coach might be perceived differently to the way they coach. This could produce confusion or frustration from the players, as the style might not work with certain personalities. An example could be a coach being overly assertive to a player that is introverted and upsetting them. This creates a rift between the athlete and coach, resulting in a lower effectiveness when it comes to leading and giving feedback.

The approach that Mr Davies takes to self-awareness is exactly why their piece was chosen. It is much different to the other pieces and provides a fresh perspective on the ideas expanded upon by others. The piece is very informative, but could improve through some exploration into how a coach might retain their self-awareness, as that would implore more coaches to expand their knowledge on themselves and use methods such as positive self-talk (Tod et al, 2011). Positive self-talk is a method of reassuring one of certain things. For example, a coach might self-talk how they want to coach and be perceived by others. This would ensure retention of the coaches ideals and how they approach whichever sport they coach.

References:

Nutt Williams, E. (2008). A psychotherapy researcher's perspective on therapist self-awareness and self-focused attention after a decade of research. Psychotherapy research, 18(2), 139-146.

Thagard, P. (2014). The self as a system of multilevel interacting mechanisms. Philosophical Psychology, 27(2), 145-163.

Gallagher, S. (2013). A pattern theory of self. Frontiers in human neuroscience, 7, 443.

Tod, D., Hardy, J., & Oliver, E. (2011). Effects of self-talk: A systematic review. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 33(5), 666-687.