The early emperors understood the importance of maintaining much of Chinese culture and

incorporating highly skilled and regarded Han Chinese in government positions. They took on more Chinese characteristics, and didn’t force many Manchu characteristics on the Chinese people. This gave them a pretty solid standing with the people. They also understood how to interact with other non-Manchu groups in China and foreigners. By using the Jesuits to help negotiate with the Russians, they were able to keep their borders secure. By working with the Portuguese, Kangxi was able to bring new crops to China which diversified the Chinese peoples’ diets. This also helped to stabilize the economy as China traded porcelain, silks, and other goods.

What were some of the effects of the importation of opium into China during the 1800s?

The importation of opium into China during the 1800s was an economic boom to the foreign nations who were providing it to the Chinese - it was rather close, coming from India, and it was easy to transport, and since it was technically illegal to sell, the ‘hang’ merchants who bought it paid for much of it in silver. The trade imbalance was reversed, and the problems with the Guangzhou system became quite evident. Chinese people by the hundreds of thousands became addicted, and they worked less, causing economic turmoil. Violence amongst the Chinese grew, and traditional Chinese social morals fell.

What were the primary objectives of the Self-Strengthening Movement, and what challenges did it face during its implementation?

The Self-Strengthening Movement’s main objectives were to strengthen the military, reform China’s government structure, and develop China’s economy. Unfortunately, the movement, founded by powerful regional leaders looking for reform, had limited success due to rivalries and tensions I the court, increasingly independent provincial leaders, corruption, nepotism, inefficiency, etc. Emperors and Empress Cixi also failed to give total support, sometimes helping, sometimes limiting them. Another very significant problem was the distrust of merchants by the government, and their unwillingness to allow investors caused failure to thrive syndrome on many industries.

           Modern Chinese History

Jose L. Ramos Essay # 1

What was the Great Leap Forward and what were some of its effects?  

The creation of Modern China involved many stages that culminated in the implementation of major reforms. Over the course of many decades and various struggles for power a semblance of true change would emerge in the late 1940’s into the 1950’s and 60’s. These changes would have a long lasting impact on the political, cultural, and economic landscape of China. 

Key amongst the changes was the declaration of the founding of the People’s Republic of China by Mao Zedong. This new republic ushered in an era of reforms that would change the lives of millions throughout the nation. One such reform was the establishment and implementation of the Agrarian Reform Law. The law pushed for the collectivization of land which ultimately led to the “The Great Leap Forward” in which Mao called for the creation of agricultural collectives known as communes. Private ownership of land was abolished as a result. This had a huge impact on the lives and cultural practices of peasant populations across China. Communal living standards were instituted across the communes. Under pressure to produce and fear of party reprisals the communes reported non-existent surpluses thus leaving the nation with a deficit in the amount of food needed to feed the nation's population. The Great leap failed causing Mao to lose power and be forced out of leadership. 

Who was the Red Guard and what role did they play in the Cultural Revolution?

However, Mao was not done and refused to see his vision of a Communist system evaporate under the leadership of others who were inclined to support a capitalist system. As a result in 1956, Mao launched “The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution” Key players were the youth of China challenged by Mao to oust traitorous infiltrators from the communist party. Hence, the "Red Guard” was born. China’s youth heeded the call. Some by choice, others through peer pressure or a desire for adventure. The name Red Guard resulted from their use of uniforms and Red armbands. The Red Guard became a powerful force in the cultural shift to a Communist system in China. The Red Guard became the enforcers for creating the change that Mao espoused. They reported suspected counterrevolutionaries. They used the slightest excuses to accuse anyone of being a counter-revolutionary. These included lack of enthusiasm for communist causes as well as possession of western books. As a result, many people lost their positions, were imprisoned, sent to workcamps, or even committed suicide. 

What purpose did the Four Modernizations serve in the development of modern China?

The death of Mao Zedong in 1976 brought about still another chapter in the development of the China we see today. Mao’s death could have resulted in a new schism but instead pragmatism and a zeal for stability took charge. This came in the long-term leadership of Deng Xiaoping. In spite of infighting between those who wanted to continue in the vision set forth by Mao Zedong and those who wanted to pursue reform, the party chose to follow the path set forth by reformers in the form of the leadership of Deng Xiaoping. 

Deng Xiaoping led the country and the party from 1978 until his death in 1997. During this time he instituted the Four Modernizations in the areas of agriculture, industry, science and the military. Reform in agriculture resulted in the abolition of the commune system with more control over crops passed on to the farmers themselves. This accomplished greater output, eradication of starvation, and an increase of income for the average farmer. In the area of industry a similar approach was utilized allowing for managerial control of industry with less interference from the government. The policy also created economic zones to allow for foreign investment. Once again, the result was increased productivity. New job creation, and overall economic growth. The developments in science in technology were fostered by having the best and brightest educated at foreign universities and subsequently returning home to utilize their skills. This was necessary due to a negative impact of the Mao era regarding education and skilled labor. Finally, the approach to the military was pragmatic in developing superior weaponry as opposed to increasing the military’s manpower. This in effect made the best use of the country’s military budget. 

Warlords ruled regional areas, ruthlessly extracting money and assaulting the populations that lived in their areas.  Sometimes they banded together and formed cliques to challenge or stave off other warlords in their quest to expand influence and territory.  Control over Beijing was coveted, lending legitimacy to whomever managed to hold it.  More than anything, they stood in the way of a new form of government or a way forward for China.  Before the nationalists or the communists could claim control over China, they had to defeat the warlords and unite the nation under one of their ideologies.  Once Chiang Kai-shek completed the Northern Expedition to eradicate the warlords with his much better trained army, warlords either surrendered or pledged allegiance. However, there were some who continued to operate somewhat independently as long as they didn’t challenge Chiang.

Intellectuals focused more on how to reform China by addressing the social or cultural issues, although they differed in their solutions.  They believed that traditional Chinese culture and Confucianism were backward and needed to enter a new era.  Many intellectuals believed that science and democracy would be the way forward, but they disagreed what that might look like in a new China.  Some wanted to come up with solutions to problems while others like Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao embraced newer ideologies, co-founding the communist party as an all-inclusive ideology.  They quickly learned they could connect with opposite portions of the population: the nationalists in urban areas and the communists in rural areas. Ultimately, the conflict between the groups would lead to an era of total war.

Jose L. Ramos

Essay # 2

What is the “China Model” and in what ways can it be viewed as a success? The China Model is a model of governance based on political meritocracy and economic policies that allow the Chinese Communist Party to continue to exert control while allowing for innovation, foreign investment, and economic growth. The model was inspired by the success of the Four Modernizations that targeted reform in agriculture, industry, science, and the military. Although the Four Modernations served as template it was not entirely successful as it actually caused more problems as a result of the commune system which was dismantled under the China Model. The leaders of each sector are incentivized by a meritocracy that rewards productivity and results often resulting in promotions within the party ranks. As a result of this model China has seen great economic growth that has impacted the standard of living of many across the nation. In addition China has become a respected member of the international economic community and has been able to extend its reach beyond its borders. What are the goals of China’s Belt and Road Initiative? In response to the development of its role on the global stage China has expanded its investment in port facilities, highways and other infrastructure in foreign countries. These investments serve to facilitate China’s expanded trade markets across the world. The implementation of these types of investments became known as the “ Belt and Road” initiative. By helping develop infrastructure in Africa, Southern Asia and other regions of the world China also enhances its own interests relative to trade and communication. What are the benefits and the challenges of the One Country/Two Systems system? The end of a 99 year lease accorded Great Britain as part of one of its treaties with China; Hong Kong reverted to Chinese governance and once again became a part of China. In an effort to ease the transition China issued the “One Country, Two Systems” policy. This allowed Hong Kong to continue existing under its current governance, cultural and financial systems for a period of 50 years if they promised to remain loyal to the Chinese State. This could be perceived as a benefit. A detractor however soon developed with the infusion of wealthy Chinese immigrants and tourists feeling the impact of a gentrifying effect on housing and cost of living.

The major problems facing China at the time of its founding in 1949 were inflation, the need for land reform, and isolation in the international community.

The new government devised a new currency, the Chinese New Yuan, and a propaganda program to win over the urban elite. In the rural areas, the government tried to redistribute land to poor farmers, but was not very successful. Instead, they allowed the peasants to take the land by force. While the land was redistributed, a million people were killed. Eventually, the new peasant landowners were urged to collectivize their land and equipment.

Meanwhile, the international community was being forced to choose sides between Mao’s Communist China on the mainland, and Chiang Kai-Shek’s Nationalist China on Taiwan. When China joined with North Korea, which had invaded American backed South Korea, any remaining affinity between China and the USA was broken. Most of America’s allies also chose Taiwan, leaving China isolated.

* In what ways did the Korean War help to demonstrate China’s resilience?

Mao told the Chinese people that the USA was a ‘paper tiger’. Millions of Chinese, barely trained enough to be called soldiers, and with little to no equipment continually overran the Americans. China showed that it was not afraid of the most powerful army in the world, and would sacrifice hundreds of thousands of its citizens to not back down.

* Who was the Red Guard and what role did they play in the Cultural Revolution?

The Red Guard was made up of millions of teenagers and young adults, and they played a major role in Mao’s reemergence as the paramount leader of China, and having been relieved of many of his positions. They ‘rooted out’ counterrevolutionaries. Anyone suspected of harboring any ideas or things considered ‘Western’, or anyone lacking in sufficient enthusiasm would be targeted, ‘tried’ in a makeshift trial, humiliated, sent to reeducation camps, and even killed.

Week 3: Response Paper 1 

What were some of the problems facing China at the time of its founding in 1949?  What solutions did the government provide for some of these problems? 

When Mao declared the founding of the PRC in 1949, there were multiple issues facing both the supporters and dissenters of the communist regime. Inflation made life incredibly difficult for everyone, citizens were reeling from multiple wars, and China still had a poor international reputation. Additionally, urban residents did not like the ideals of communism, a fact which was initially addressed by an intense propaganda campaign intended to reassure wealthy urban residents that their lives would be comfortable and stable under communist rule. 

To address the primary problems, Mao eliminated the old currency and created a new currency which in effect curbed inflation. Mao worked to reward those in the countryside, many of whom had fought in the decades of war for China; he declared the Agrarian Reform Law which worked to remove farms from private ownership and create farms that were co-operatively owned by poor farmers. Private land ownership was a thing of the past.  

Regarding China’s international reputation, Mao opted to focus on internal reform rather than being concerned with external voices and pressures. This came to a head when international powers were forced to either recognize Mao as the legitimate leader or Chaing Kai-shek as the true leader from his position in Taiwan. The Korean war in 1950 tested both the US and China and (though ostensibly focused on the Korean peninsula) forced China into the role of enemy of the west and ensured that the two major powers (China and the US) would not be allies in the near future. 

While many of these initial problems were addressed efficiently, new problems arose. For example, the collective land ownership issue caused an estimated 1 million citizens to lose their lives in battles for agrarian property that had previously been in the hands of wealthy landowners. Poor farmers and villagers felt entitled to land that was not theirs and often tried to take it by force.  

What was the Great Leap Forward and what were some of its effects?  

The Great Leap Forward was Mao’s movement focusing on bringing China into the modern era with industrialization, mega production, and the merger of collective farms into communes for workers. Approximately half a billion Chinese lived on communes which allowed them to collectively farm and live in a community that had a public cafeteria, school, infirmary and nursing home. The goal was to have commune members work together to increase production because they lived in the same area where they worked. With an emphasis on optimism and industrialization (focusing specifically on increasing the production of steel, for example), Mao rejected excuses about why China could not lead the world in production.  

Unfortunately, this attitude made commune leaders fearful of Mao and possible retribution from him. In 1959, the Great Leap Forward became a source of famine when surplus grain goals were falsified and thirty million Chinese starved because grain production was not as expected. Because state records are still sealed, scholars can only estimate the true cost (in lives).   

The four modernizations (Agriculture/Industry/National Defense/Science & Technology) were all elements of the Reform Era ushered in by Deng Xiaping. These areas of development were chosen because they would allow China to eliminate the chaos that had been ushered in by the CCP in the Maoist era and would allow citizens to return to a sense of normalcy. Their impact would be almost immediate (as was seen with the reform of agricultural practices which ultimately led to many farmers becoming upper-middle class citizens) and were very public.

Not only did these areas allow for Chinese citizens to gain a sense of confidence and see growth, change, and development in their own country, but these shifts allowed China to reemerge as a land of importance on the global stage.

Deng Xiaoping recognized the need for China to educate leaders in these areas, and sent out citizens to foreign lands to study abroad so that they could return to China and be experts in their field. By focusing on these four areas of development, China was able to quickly and efficiently begin an era of transformation that has allowed to to be the prosperous enigma that it is today.

Kenley even notes that these areas of development led to dramatic changes that redefined China: "Precisely because it has been so impressive, economic development may have created expectations that are unrealistic over the long term. China's many years of high growth rates have defied the predictions of numerous well-respected economists..."