Distal style of parenting: face-to-face interaction with eye contact as objects are shown to the infant/toddler that encourages awareness of self as independent. 

Children experiencing this type of parenting, are more likely to recognize themselves as an autonomous, separate person. 

Proximal style of parenting: emphasizes physical contact, encouraging togetherness and unity.

Toddlers who experienced proximal style of parenting showed more self regulation and compliance and less self-recognition on the rouge test.

These new emotions in the later toddler years involve some level of self-evaluation. Toddlers respond to their own successes with pride and celebration, and wrongdoings with shame or guilt. (These are affected by culture.)

Negative evaluations of a toddler actions lead to shame when older. Positive evaluations and helpful feedback lead to persistence on tasks (mastery motivation).

Toddlers are learning that actions have consequences and are beginning to manage emotions on their own. 

Emotional core: sense of own worth and possibilities (These are affected by couture, social context and relationships.)

Older toddlers are now able to imagine one thing as another and apply the same name, understanding that there is a difference between the real and imagined object. (Example given was a toddler imagining that a stick is a horse. She calls it a horse and rides it but knows it is not a real horse.)

As their understanding of speech as a representation of the world grows, their ability to describe the world they live in also grows.

Speech is the first step toward understanding material representation.

If provided the materials, a toddler will spontaneously draw.

Canonical Bias:  toddlers do not draw what they can actually see, but rather a typical example of that kind of object (for example, if asked to draw a cat, they would draw the entire body of the cat even if they only see the head of a cat). Piaget called this intellectual realism: children draw what they know, not what they see. 

Children across cultures show similar patterns in play.

Pretend play is greatly enhanced when performed as a social act. Research shows a toddler playing with a parent or older sibling engages in more complex symbolic play.