The Byzantine Empire by Eleanor Kulczar

eleanorkulczar — 2024-04-13 21:02:16 UTC

With the impending fall of the Roman empire in 330 CE, emperor Constantine the Great officially moved the capital to the city Byzantion, which he would rename to Constantinople after himself. With this act, what would later be known as the Byzantine empire was established, then as just a continuation of the former Roman empire. Though the inhabitants of the Byzantine empire labeled themselves as Romans and treated this empire as simply the Eastern Roman empire, there were key aspects of the Byzantine empire that make it distinct from the Romans. To begin, the Early Byzantine period marked the beginning of the empire and its initial shift from Rome, and saw the empire embrace Christianity as its official religion, a major shift from the previous pagan religions of the Roman empire. The period also saw substantial expansion under emperor and empress Justinian I and Theodora, who also contributed heavily to the architectural domination of Constantinople seeing the construction of several celebrated structures like the Hagia Sophia. Another important distinction from the Roman empire at this time was the movement from Latin to Greek as an official language, as the empire had shifted from the West to an Eastern capital in Greece and Asia Minor. The Byzantine empire based on these important early distinctions existed from around 330 CE to 1453 CE, roughly 1,000 years, and beyond its initial ties to the Roman empire established itself as a capital for Christian Orthodoxy and created interactions with other major European nations throughout its longevity until their eventual defeat by the Ottoman empire. The Byzantine empire can be separated from its initial ties to the Roman empire because of their distinct culture and art, as well as their later interactions with Europe and Asia that long outlived the Romans.

The Byzantine empire’s most notable themes that make them distinct are the copious amount of religious imagery and iconography in their artwork. Religious iconography is present in most Byzantine artwork, and most notably the architecture of this period is made specifically for the worship of Christianity in the form of churches like the Hagia Sophia. Icons and mosaics depicting religious imagery within these churches and other structures are indicative of the Byzantine empire because of the extreme religious influence the empire saw. Other architectural feats of the Byzantine were the impressive wall fortifications around Constantinople as well as the city’s aqueduct system. The Theodosian Walls protected Constantinople from intruders, and the aqueduct system provided fresh water to the city in an impressive innovation of engineering. It is also important to note the shift from Latin to Greek after the establishment of the Byzantine empire, so documents and writing from the Byzantine will use Greek as the primary language as opposed to the Roman empire’s Latin texts. The other type of “theme” in the Byzantine empire was the administrative divisions of the military that replaced the former Roman legions. The themes were an important part of the expansion of the Byzantine empire under Justinian I, and were under order of the emperor, who was the commander in chief, but split into themata commanded by generals and tagmata who kept soldiers in line away from the empire. Overall, The Byzantine empire is most notable for its extreme religious influence under Orthodox Christianity, and beyond that can be noted for its major emperors Constantine the Great and Justinian I, or its impressive architectural feats.

eleanorkulczar — 2024-04-13 21:19:14 UTC

In conclusion, The Byzantine empire is one of the more noteworthy empires and distinct from its predecessor the Roman empire as can be seen from their establishment of Christianity and movement toward a Greek center, making a new face for the former Roman citizens and establishing their culture throughout Europe. The Byzantine empire was one of the first Christian empires and will be forever remembered because of its vast impact on the modern world because of how Christianity spread from them and established the religion as the power we know it as today. Similarly, the Byzantine architecture that still stands in modern day Istanbul will perpetuate the Byzantine empire’s legacy as innovators of modern architecture and as a center for some of the most important churches and places of worship today. After the Early Byzantine period, the empire went on to influence the rest of the world through its exports of religion and expansion of their territory, and is one of the longest existing empires in history. Though many of the political, military, and cultural aspects of the Byzantine empire have origins in the Roman empire from which they came, the eastward shift of its people and expansion of religion, architecture, and global interaction make the Byzantine empire an important empire in its own right.

eleanorkulczar — 2024-04-13 21:26:08 UTC

This video is a clip from a larger documentary on the Byzantine empire, and explains the origins of Constantinople as emperor Constantine the Great established the city and it transformed into the wealthy capital of the empire. The clip covers Constantine's initial movement from Rome to the city of Constantinople, which marks the beginning of the Byzantine empire, then discusses the Christian influence on the city and construction of many cathedrals that attracted a large population, making Constantinople the largest city of its time. The clip then discusses some of Constantinople's early problems with a lack of fresh water, and the consequent construction of a complex network of aqueducts and cisterns. Defensive features of Constantinople such as the Theodosian walls and the chains along the shoreline to address attacks by sea. The features of the Byzantine empire's capital Constantinople discussed in this clip create a good image of the capabilities of the empire.

"The Byzantines." , directed by Rebecca Ratliff, and Mark Cannon. , produced by Rebecca Ratliff, Kralyevich Productions, and Mechanism Digital. , A&E Television Networks, 2006. Alexander Street, https://video.alexanderstreet.com/watch/the-byzantines.

Barbarian Kingdoms and Reconquest of Justinian I

eleanorkulczar — 2024-04-13 21:36:27 UTC

This map depicts the territorial expansion of Justinian I through his conquest of the "Barbarian kingdoms" the Franks, Visigoths, and Lombards in western Europe. Under Justinian I, the Byzantine empire saw the height of its territorial expansion, reaching well into the former western territories of the Roman empire. The movement of the expansion by the Byzantine military is also depicted in this map, a brief example of the success of the Byzantine military which comprised of a theme system headed by generals, who answered back to the Byzantine emperor.

Barbarian Kingdoms, the Reconquest of Justinian, Arab Conquests 3 Maps. 5th-8th c. JSTOR, https://jstor.org/stable/community.13584573. Accessed 13 Apr. 2024.

Byzantine Empire

eleanorkulczar — 2024-04-13 21:41:24 UTC

This map shows the extent of the Byzantine Empire's territory at its height. The red regions indicate territory that had been gained under Justinian I during his reconquest that was later lost after Justinian I's death. The blue region indicates the territory of the Byzantine empire by around 1000 CE, nearing the end of the empire's reign. Though Justinian I was able to capture an expansive amount of territory, in the years following his death up until the year 1000 CE as shown in this map the empire saw a loss of territory. The black dots indicate battle sites, where outside forces, typically the Ottoman Turks, pushed back Byzantine territory, and eventually overthrew the empire.

Byzantine Empire. c.1000. JSTOR, https://jstor.org/stable/community.13580523. Accessed 13 Apr. 2024.

Hagia Sophia

eleanorkulczar — 2024-04-13 22:21:26 UTC

The Hagia Sophia was a cathedral constructed under Justinian I in Constantinople. Justinian I commanded the construction of the Hagia Sophia shortly after the Nika riot in 532 and it was constructed in a short 6 years after that. The church displays some of the architectural innovation of the time period shown in its massive scale and the dome top of the building. Though the original dome caved in not long after construction due to an earthquake, it was reconstructed soon after and has stood since then. The cathedral also displays the importance of Christianity to the Byzantine empire because it was at the time the largest cathedral ever constructed, demonstrating the strong influence that Christianity had.

Helbert, Antoine, et al. “Hagia Sophia.jpg.” The Byzantine Legacy, 2016, https://www.thebyzantinelegacy.com/hagia-sophia. Accessed 13 April 2024.

Basilica Cistern

eleanorkulczar — 2024-04-13 22:36:08 UTC

The Basilica Cistern is a major site from Constantinople which was once located under a basilica near the Hagia Sophia, though it is no longer there. The Basilica Cistern is one function of the complex water system that existed in the city of Constantinople. Because of the location of the city, there was no naturally occurring fresh water available, so the construction of cisterns and aqueducts was necessary to bring fresh water into the city. The Basilica Cistern is one such example of this, which was likely fed by the Aqueduct of Hadrian. The Basilica Cistern is another example of the Byzantine empire's grand architecture as it was not only able to hold a substantial amount of water for the city, but the construction of the cistern display artistic reliefs and many columns featuring the composite style that is typical of Byzantine columns structure, as opposed to the Roman corinthian columns.

Hendrix, David. “Basilica Cistern.” The Byzantine Legacy, 2016, https://www.thebyzantinelegacy.com/basilica-cistern. Accessed 13 April 2024.

Theodosian Walls

eleanorkulczar — 2024-04-13 23:05:10 UTC

The Theodosian Walls were fortifications of Constantinople's western border and are yet another architectural feat of the city. The walls are comprised of a large moat, an outer wall, a wide terrace, and then the inner wall consisting of ninety-six towers along the length. The composition of these walls were able to protect the city and stop the attacks of the Huns early in the empires existence, and were only able to be breached with the evolution of warfare into cannons and gun power. The original walls were constructed under a young emperor Theodosius II, and later expanded and reconstructed after an earthquake under a very short period of time that further shows the powerful architectural skills of the Byzantine.

Nasuh, Matrakçı, and David Hendrix. “Theodosian Walls.” The Byzantine Legacy, 16 October 2023, https://www.thebyzantinelegacy.com/theodosian-walls. Accessed 13 April 2024.

Coin depicting Justinian I

eleanorkulczar — 2024-04-14 03:21:45 UTC

This coin was minted in Constantinople in the mid-500s under the rule of Justinian I. The coin depicts a portrait of Justinian I on the front in royal attire, and the backside has an image of an angel holding an orb and sceptre. Around the sides are Greek inscription. The depiction of the emperor on the coin was common of the Roman empire as well to establish authority in the empire. The image of the angel on the back is in keeping with the religious imagery of Byzantine culture, and the orb and sceptre as well are symbols of God's power often associated with monarchs.

Wroth, Warwick. “Catalogue of the Imperial Byzantine Coins in the British Museum.” British Museum, BMP, 1908, https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/term/BIB3151. Accessed 13 April 2024.

Censer

eleanorkulczar — 2024-04-14 03:50:02 UTC

This is an incense burner depicting portraits of Christ, the Virgin Mary, St. Peter, St. Paul, St. John, and St. James. The censer has three holes where chains would have been. This is an example of religious observance in the Byzantine empire, as a censer is a common object used in religious services. This censer was found in a monastery in Constantinople and would have been used for daily worship.

Dalton, Ormonde M. Censer. Catalogue of Early Christian Antiquities and Objects. 1901. British Museum, BMP, https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/H_1899-0425-3.

Capital from Byzantine Column

eleanorkulczar — 2024-04-14 04:01:40 UTC

This is a limestone capital from a Byzantine column. The capital displays a composite style of column, which was typical of the Byzantine empire's column designs. Limestone was also used in Byzantine architecture to allow structures to be able to move without immediately collapsing, coupled with the use of cement and brick. The design specifically is what is most typical of Byzantine art and architecture, and makes this column more likely Byzantine than Roman because composite columns are more typical of Byzantine while the Romans typically used corinthian style.

Palestine Exploration Fund. Capital. Limestone capital; carved with shaped top, boldly cut foliage and volutes resting on twin columns below. 1903. British Museum, https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1903-0220-4.

Drawing of Job and His Family Represented as Heraclius and His Family

eleanorkulczar — 2024-04-14 04:33:36 UTC

This is a manuscript page of ink on parchment showing greek text and a drawing of emperor Heraclius with the biblical figure Job and his daughters. Under Heraclius, the Byzantine empire saw the switch of the official language from Latin to Greek, as most of the empire consisted of Greek speakers at this point. Heraclius was also an important emperor for his suppression of Persian advances on Byzantine territory. This manuscript page celebrates Heraclius alongside Job, an important religious figure, and Heraclius seems to have a halo around his head equating him to a holy figure. The Greek script is also important to indicating the Byzantine empire as the empire had moved to Greek territory away from the western Roman and Latin culture.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Drawing of Job and His Family Represented as Heraclius and His Family. 5th century. MET, https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/477154.

Reliquary

eleanorkulczar — 2024-04-14 04:43:57 UTC

This is an example of Byzantine jewelry. The locket on the front depicts two religious scenes, on the top is nativity and the bottom is the adoration of the Magi. On the backside is the engraving of a cross and a Greek inscription, reading: "Secure salvation, and repulsion of all evil things." This locket closes with a sliding pin. The impact of religion in Byzantine culture extends to the jewelry worn by citizens, revealing the connections of citizens to religious life. Religion permeated every aspect of daily life in the Byzantine empire.

Franks, Augustus W. reliquary; pendant; locket. 1897. British Museum, https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/H_AF-354.

Helmet

eleanorkulczar — 2024-04-14 04:55:59 UTC

This is a helmet that would have been worn by a Byzantine military leader. The helmet depicts images of animals and religious symbols. One of these depictions is of birds eating grapes, which is generally thought to be a religious symbol for Christians desire for Christ. This helmet was found in the Caucasus region and other helmets of this type have been found throughout France, Germany, Italy, and the Balkans. The military expansion of The Byzantine empire under Justinian I extended far into Europe, and Byzantine helmets found in these regions indicate the reach of the army in early Byzantine history.

Sotheby's, London. Arts of the Islamic World: Including Fine Carpets and Textiles. London: Sotheby's, London, October 6, 2010. pp. 102–105, no. 123, ill.

Seal Depicting Constantine VI

eleanorkulczar — 2024-04-14 05:56:31 UTC

This is a seal from the late 700s depicting Constantine VI on the front side with a Greek inscription reading: "Constantine, basileus". The backside has an image of a cross. This seal, like the Byzantine coins, indicates the promotion of the emperor within the empire. It also indicates the use of seals for documentation or administrative purposes, and again has the religious imagery and Greek language that are notable for Byzantine artifacts.

Catalogue of Byzantine Seals at Dumbarton Oaks and in the Fogg Museum of Art, Vol. 6, Emperors, Patriarchs of Constantinople, Addenda

Bread Stamp

eleanorkulczar — 2024-04-14 06:07:46 UTC

This is a bread stamp with an inscriptions reading: "Leontius' seal" and depicting a 7 stemmed candle with palm leaves and grapes. Bread stamps were used to mark bread and prevent forgeries so that the provenance of a loaf of bread could be identified. This bread stamp, belonging to a man named Leontius in the Early Byzantine empire, helps to paint a picture of what economic trade and social systems were like in the empire among the working class citizens such as bread-makers. The bread stamp also portrays religious imagery, once again indicating the influence of religion on common people and for this bread-maker possibly used to promote his religious beliefs to sell more bread.

Dalton 1901 / Catalogue of Early Christian Antiquities and Objects from the Christian East in the Department of British and Medieval Antiquities and Ethnography of the British Museum

Icon with the Virgin and Child, Saints, Angels, and the Hand of God

eleanorkulczar — 2024-04-14 06:16:55 UTC

This is an icon of the Virgin and child with two saints, two angels, and a glimpse of the hand of God. Iconography became very popular in the Byzantine empire with the rise of Christianity, and a piece like this would have been displayed in a cathedral. The gold halos around the heads of the Virgin, child, and the saints are very typical stylistically for religious art in this time period. The Byzantine empire was one of the most influential empires in the spread of Christianity, and pieces like this contributed to that spread of religion into Europe and Asia Minor.

Evans, Helen C., and Brandie Ratliff, ed. Byzantium and Islam: Age of Transition, 7th–9th century. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2012. pp. 127–28, fig. 55.

Three-Ounce Weight

eleanorkulczar — 2024-04-14 06:32:39 UTC

This three-ounce weight depicts imperial busts of Justin II, Sophia, and Justinian. The Greek inscription reads: "in the time of the wholly blessed and best disposed (of men) Iulianos, stratelates, on the twentieth of Phamenoth, eighth indiction." The busts of the imperial figures are depicted with halos, equating the Byzantine emperors to holy figures. The weight itself is an example of early Byzantine tools and weight/measurement systems.

Thomas Whittemore (by 1950), bequest; to the Fogg Art Museum, 1951.