Refering to the instrumentalist theory, when the PM was assassinated, it ceetainly caused tensions about the political power which may have aggrevated the riots, adding more fuel by creating an unresting situation.

Nihal Islam

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Until the year 2012 upward, the region as been quite very peaceful, with both Christians and Muslims faithful coexisting peaceful, suddenly a tiny group of extremist group who were originally community and political vanguards began to terrorised the region, and wreal series of havoc which leads to the division of the people who once enjoyed tranquility, thus leading religious clashes in the region. 

The group spearheading this violence will later change their orientation, and seek to establish Caliphate thus having a theocratic state in the region, this marks the beginning of of the popular Boko Haram crisis in the region

In 637 CE, during the Islamic conquests, the Rashidun Caliphate, led by Caliph Umar, besieged Jerusalem, which was then under Byzantine control. After months of siege, Patriarch Sophronius agreed to surrender the city but requested that Caliph Umar personally come to accept the surrender. Umar's arrival marked a turning point in the region's history. He entered Jerusalem on foot, dressed modestly, and signed a treaty granting Christians protection in exchange for a tax . This act of tolerance allowed Christians to continue practicing their faith, setting a precedent for Islamic rule over non-Muslim populations.

The capture of Jerusalem was significant for Muslims, as it is home to the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock, sites associated with the Prophet Muhammad's Night Journey. For Christians, the loss of Jerusalem was a profound blow, as it is the site of Jesus' crucifixion and resurrection. This event marked the beginning of centuries of interaction both conflict and coexistence between Islamic and Christian civilizations, shaping the religious and political landscape of the region. The image encapsulates this pivotal moment, highlighting themes of conquest, tolerance, and the shared sacredness of Jerusalem.

Republic of Yugoslavia consisting of six republics were formed in 1943; during World War II, it was ruled by Marshal Josip Tito following the World War, people of different ideologies lived cohesively. After Tito’s death in 1980, nationalism began rising. In 1991, the country began to disintegrate along ethnic lines.

Religious conflicts arise due to historical tensions, political agendas, social and economic disparities, and a lack of interfaith dialogue. Solutions include promoting inclusive policies, encouraging interfaith initiatives, and implementing education that fosters tolerance and diversity. Addressing these root causes can help create a more peaceful and inclusive society.

Religious conflicts like the CAA-NRC protests in India can be analyzed through three key theories:

Primordialism sees religious identity as deep-rooted and unchangeable, suggesting Hindu-Muslim tensions stem from historical divisions like Partition.

Instrumentalism argues that religious differences are politically exploited, with the BJP using Hindu nationalism to marginalize Muslims and consolidate power.

Constructivism views religious identity as socially shaped, emphasizing that divisions are reinforced by history and politics but can be redefined through movements promoting inclusivity.

Here in this image, a huge group of people with ropes and tools bringing down a domed building (the Babri Masjid). Some are carrying saffron flags (a sign of Hindu nationalism) and some are sloganeering. There is chaos, dust, and debris in the air.

This photo documents the 1992 destruction of the Babri Masjid, a 16th-century mosque in Ayodhya, India, by Hindu nationalist forces. They argued that the mosque was constructed on the birthplace of Lord Rama, a Hindu god, and wanted to construct a temple there instead. The incident unleashed riots across the country, claiming more than 2,000 lives and widening Hindu-Muslim fault lines in India.

Centuries-old conflicts over religious sites and colonial policies that widened religious gaps.

Class Reflection on Religious Conflict:

• Primordialist View: People see religion as a deep part of identity, causing natural divisions.

• Instrumentalist View: Leaders or politicians use religion for their own power and control.

• Constructivist View: Society shapes religious identity, which can sometimes create conflict between groups.

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The war caused a lot of pain, with many people dying from battles, hunger, and disease. Large parts of Central Europe were destroyed, and the Holy Roman Empire became much weaker. The war ended in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia. This agreement gave countries the right to choose their own religion and changed the political map of Europe. The Holy Roman Empire lost power, while countries like France and Sweden became stronger. The war also marked the end of religious wars in Europe and helped create modern nations.

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Class Reflections:

• Primordialist View: Conflict happens due to deep-rooted religious differences.

• Instrumentalist View: Leaders use religion to gain power or political control.

• Constructivist View: Religious identity is shaped by society and history, fueling conflict.

For example, tensions between Hindus and Muslims in South Asia have led to riots due to historical and political issues.

The Beeldenstorm was not just about religion—it was a political statement against the control of the Catholic Church and the Spanish monarchy. The conflict escalated into the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648), which ultimately led to Dutch independence. This event highlights how religious disagreements can become intertwined with political and social upheaval, leading to widespread violence and transformation.