 Aprendizaje por descubrimiento: es el proceso por el cual el alumno construye su conocimiento de una manera autónoma e independiente del docente, que vas desde mecánico y memorístico.

 Aprendizaje significativo: la construcción del alumno depende del docente, que interviene en su conocimiento incorporando nuevas informaciones.

 Aprendizaje Repetitivo: en este caso el aprendizaje no va acorde con los conocimientos previos de los estudiantes debido a una mala estructuración y planificación.

 Aprendizaje Restringido: el proceso esta influenciado por diversas situaciones específicas de nuestro ambiente.

 Aprendizaje Productivo: se garantiza un aprendizaje provechoso por una buena organización y un buen que no solo implica integrar contenido nuevo.

Definition of Learning:

It is the change in behavior due to experience that cannot be explained by a transitory state of the organism, by maturation or by innate response tendencies. Below, we will outline some of the important learnings to teach students.

Ø  Learning by discovery: it is the process by which the student builds his knowledge in an autonomous and independent way from the teacher, ranging from mechanical and memorized.

Ø  Significant learning: the construction of the student depends on the teacher, who intervenes in his knowledge by incorporating new information.

Ø   Repetitive Learning: in this case, learning is not in accordance with the students' previous knowledge due to poor structuring and planning.

Ø  Restricted Learning: the process is influenced by various specific situations in our environment.

Ø  Productive Learning: Profitable learning is guaranteed by good organization and a good learning that not only involves integrating new content.

·         Teorías del Condicionamiento: se basa en los estudios sobre el reflejo condicionado y el operante o instrumental basado en los principios del refuerzo positivo.

·         Teorías de Ensayo y Error: basado en la Psicología de comportamiento humano, las capacidades a la enseñanza de matemática, lectura y escritura.

El aprendizaje consiste en la formación o reforzamiento de una conexión o nexo entre una situación o estímulo específico y una respuesta específica.

Gracia a esto experimento se pudo resolver este problema,

o   La motivación es de primordial importancia para desarrollar esfuerzos por aprender.

o   Los intentos al aprender siguen el principio de “ensayo y error”.

El aprendizaje se consolida a base de “éxitos”.

THEORIES OF LEARNING

This Theory tells us to understand and identify the processes of knowledge acquisition and from them try to describe the methods for better instruction. There is also the combination of these two elements such as the method and situations that determine the principle and theories of learning. Below, we will expose the best known of which their knowledge helps.

·         Theories of Conditioning: it is based on studies on the conditioned reflex and the operant or instrumental reflex based on the principles of positive reinforcement.

·         Theories of Trial and Error: based on the psychology of human behavior, the capacities to teach mathematics, reading and writing.

Learning consists of the formation or reinforcement of a connection or link between a specific situation or stimulus and a specific response.

Thanks to this experiment it was possible to solve this problem,

o   Motivation is of paramount importance in developing efforts to learn.

o   Attempts at learning follow the principle of "trial and error".

o   Learning is consolidated based on "successes".

GESTALT THEORIES:

This theory is divided into three phases where the first was developed as a science that deals with the being as such, and its problems, principles and first causes, the incorporation of the mental life of man that arises from scientific Psychology, Experimental Psychology is the one that takes the first steps in the new technology that is defined as positive knowledge that investigates the essential facts. Within this theory there are main laws where it tells us that there can be no true learning in the face of disorganized sets, or isolated stimuli, learning by sudden jumps, intuitions, comprehensive penetrations, discernments, capture of structures. This theory also has three main criticisms, which does not explain the nature of the hereditary structure that is responsible for understanding.

·         Según esta teoría existe cuatros etapas principales en el desarrollo intelectual como: La sensoria motora (0-2 años), la preoperacional (2-7 años), operaciones concretas (7-11 o 12 años). - La de las operaciones formales (11 o 12 años en adelante).

El análisis de estas etapas o estadios evolutivos le permitió a Piaget investigar la génesis y el desarrollo de la formación de las nociones y operaciones por el alumno. Con ello puso de manifiesto, entre otras, las relaciones existentes entre la inteligencia y la afectividad, resaltando el paralelismo entre ambas, entendiéndolas como algo complementario. Su teoría presenta correspondencias entre el mundo afectivo e intelectivo en los distintos estadios y niveles.

Principios Metodológicos Fundamentales En este epígrafe vamos a presentar los principales principios metodológicos derivados de la teoría de Piaget. Son los siguientes:

·         La resolución de problemas por el alumno mediante métodos experimentales: observación, hipótesis, comprobación, ley.

·         La consideración de las primeras soluciones de un problema como hipótesis que hay que verificar.

·         Conceder gran importancia a las actividades prácticas.

·         Realizar las operaciones por manipulaciones y experiencias concretas.

PIAGET'S THEORIES

He simultaneously studied the foundations of logic and the formation of intelligence in the child. Piaget's discoveries have made him one of the most prestigious psychologists. His works are already classics in the literature on child psychology; the main ones: Language and thought in the child.

·         According to this theory, there are four main stages in intellectual development, such as: motor sensory (0-2 years), preoperational (2-7 years), concrete operations (7-11 or 12 years). - That of formal operations (11 or 12 years and older).

The analysis of these stages or evolutionary stages allowed Piaget to investigate the genesis and development of the formation of notions and operations by the student. With this, he highlighted, among others, the existing relationships between intelligence and affectivity, highlighting the parallelism between the two, understanding them as something complementary. His theory presents correspondences between the affective and intellectual worlds in the different stages and levels.

Fundamental Methodological Principles In this section we will present the main methodological principles derived from Piaget's theory. They are as follows:

·         The student's problem solving through experimental methods: observation, hypothesis, verification, law.

·         The consideration of the first solutions of a problem as hypotheses to be verified.

·         Attach great importance to practical activities.

·         Carry out operations by manipulations and concrete experiences.

Al querer estudiar el desarrollo y la educación desde una perspectiva interdisciplinar, nos vemos obligados a considerar las modificaciones introducidas por Bruner respecto al niño y su proceso de desarrollo. Estos cambios, se deben a los descubrimientos que hace sobre las relaciones existentes entre el desarrollo cognitivo y la educación, coincidiendo con el momento de grandes avances en Psicología, Sociología, Biología, Filosofía y otras ciencias del hombre, que van a proporcionar las bases científicas sobre las que se construye la nueva educación.

Hoy en día empieza a hacerse notar la Psicología del aprendizaje ocupándose fundamentalmente de una explicación de las distintas formas de procesar la información, tomando en cuenta tanto los aspectos cognitivos como los ambientales.

Principales aportaciones aplicables a la Educación

·         El niño progresa linealmente a saltos en los que a cada rápido avance le sigue una etapa de consolidación.

·         El lenguaje influye sobre la percepción, y no sólo sobre la memoria, al menos durante la infancia.

·         Algunos entornos estimulan el desarrollo cognitivo de forma más eficaz, más temprana y más duradera que otros.

·         En el desarrollo de la inteligencia intervienen factores internos y ambientales cuya acción varía según las distintas personas y según la motivación, necesidad e intereses específicos.

BRUNER'S THEORY

Deeply interested in the development and education of the child, he holds the theory that the human behavior of any individual is determined by the subject, the school, the culture and society. His progress in the fundamentals of language acquisition and his role in the performance of communicative functions have made him one of the most prestigious psychologists. His works are already classics in the literature on child psychology.

In wanting to study development and education from an interdisciplinary perspective, we are forced to consider the modifications introduced by Bruner with respect to the child and his or her developmental process. These changes are due to the discoveries he makes about the existing relationships between cognitive development and education, coinciding with the time of great advances in Psychology, Sociology, Biology, Philosophy and other human sciences, which will provide the scientific bases on which the new education is built.

Nowadays, the Psychology of learning is beginning to be noticed, mainly dealing with an explanation of the different ways of processing information, taking into account both cognitive and environmental aspects.

Main contributions applicable to Education

·         The child progresses linearly in leaps in which each rapid advance is followed by a stage of consolidation.

·         Language influences perception, and not only memory, at least during childhood.

·         Some environments stimulate cognitive development more effectively, earlier, and more lastingly than others.

·         Internal and environmental factors are involved in the development of intelligence, the action of which varies according to different people and according to specific motivation, needs and interests.

Vygotsky distingue dos clases de instrumentos mediadores, en función del tipo de actividad que posibilitan: la herramienta y los signos. Una herramienta modifica al medio materialmente, mientras que el signo es un constituyente de la cultura y actúa como mediador en nuestras acciones.

El enfoque vygotskyano tiene varios rasgos que lo definen y diferencian de otras teorías del aprendizaje, son los siguientes:

a)    En contraste con Piaget, Vygotsky no habla de asimilación (incorporación de nueva información a los esquemas previamente existentes), sino de apropiación (en términos de contextos culturales).

b)    Influencia predominante del ambiente cultural. Referida al origen social de los procesos psicológicos superiores (lenguaje oral, lecto- escritura, juego simbólico, etc.). La mayor parte de ellos (los avanzados) no se forman sin actuación educativa.

c)    Mediación semiótica. Papel central de los instrumentos de mediación en la constitución del psiquismo: herramientas y signos. Las herramientas están dirigidas hacia los objetos físicos, mientras que los signos permiten organizar el pensamiento, son herramientas dirigidas hacia el interior y el exterior de un individuo, produciendo cambios en los otros.

VYGOTSKY'S THEORY

Knowledge is not an object that is passed from one to another, but is something that is built through operations and cognitive skills that are induced in social interaction. Vygotsky points out that the intellectual development of the subject cannot be understood as independent of the social environment in which the individual lives. Vygotsky maintains that the development of higher psychological functions occurs first on the social plane and then on the individual level. The transmission and acquisition of knowledge and cultural patterns are possible when from interaction, interpsychological plane, internalization – intrapsychological plane is reached.

Vygotsky distinguishes two kinds of mediating instruments, depending on the type of activity they enable: the tool and the signs. A tool modifies the environment materially, while the sign is a constituent of culture and acts as a mediator in our actions.

The Vygotskyan approach has several features that define it and differentiate it from other theories of learning, they are the following:

a)    In contrast to Piaget, Vygotsky does not speak of assimilation (incorporation of new information into previously existing schemes), but of appropriation (in terms of cultural contexts).

b)    Predominant influence of the cultural environment. Referring to the social origin of higher psychological processes (oral language, reading and writing, symbolic play, etc.). Most of them (the advanced ones) are not formed without educational action.

c)    Semiotic mediation. Central role of mediation instruments in the constitution of psychism: tools and signs. Tools are directed towards physical objects, while signs allow us to organize thought, they are tools directed towards the interior and exterior of an individual, producing changes in others.

Ausubel plantea que el aprendizaje del alumno depende de la estructura cognitiva previa que se relaciona con la nueva información, debe entenderse por “estructura cognitiva”, un sistema de conceptos, ordenados jerárquicamente, que son ideas, representaciones simbólicas que el individuo se hace de las experiencias sensoriales. Asimismo, da una importancia fundamental al proceso de diferenciación de conceptos.

La característica más importante del aprendizaje significativo es que, produce una interacción entre los conocimientos más relevantes de la estructura cognitiva y las nuevas informaciones, de modo tal que éstas adquieren un significado y son incorporadas a la estructura cognitiva de manera no arbitraria y sustancial, favoreciendo la diferenciación, evolución y estabilidad de los conceptos relevantes ya existentes y consecuentemente de toda la estructura cognitiva, condiciones, tales como:

a)     Que el material sea potencialmente significativo, esto implica que el material de aprendizaje pueda relacionarse de forma no arbitraria y sustancial con alguna estructura cognitiva específica del alumno, debe poseer significado lógico en sí mismo, estar organizado en una estructura, tener significado psicológico con relación a la propia estructura (idiosincrático).

b)    El alumno debe tener una predisposición al aprendizaje significativo y también es preciso que la estructura cognitiva del que aprende contenga conceptos inclusores con los que pueda relacionarse el nuevo material.

AUSUBEL'S THEORY

The different theories of learning try to provide an answer to these three questions, based on certain "principles of learning" that contribute to learning and on which the educational work is based, if the teacher carries out his work taking into account well-established principles of learning, he will be able to apply different teaching procedures and techniques and improve his teaching practice.

Ausubel states that the student's learning depends on the previous cognitive structure that is related to the new information, it should be understood by "cognitive structure", a system of concepts, ordered hierarchically, which are ideas, symbolic representations that the individual makes of sensory experiences. It also gives fundamental importance to the process of differentiation of concepts.

The most important characteristic of meaningful learning is that it produces an interaction between the most relevant knowledge of the cognitive structure and the new information, in such a way that these acquire a meaning and are incorporated into the cognitive structure in a non-arbitrary and substantial way, favoring the differentiation, evolution and stability of the already existing relevant concepts and consequently of the entire cognitive structure.  conditions, such as:

a)     That the material is potentially significant, this implies that the learning material can be related in a non-arbitrary and substantial way to some specific cognitive structure of the student, it must have logical meaning in itself, be organized in a structure, have psychological meaning in relation to the structure itself (idiosyncratic).

b)    The learner must have a predisposition to meaningful learning and it is also necessary that the cognitive structure of the learner contains inclusive concepts with which the new material can be related.