Repeated Reading is a method that helps struggling readers to achieve decoding automaticity: students are asked to read aloud short passages until they reach a certain goal in terms of speed and accuracy. Research shows that the strategy results not only in better word reading performance, but also fluency and reading comprehension (Shanahan, 2017).

Choral Reading is a strategy used to build not only reading fluency, but also confidence and motivation. The teacher and students take turns reading the same text: the teacher takes the first turn and models fluent reading of a sentence or short paragraph, and all students repeat the same part of the text. This way, struggling readers are allowed to practice, get corrective feedback and support before they are required to read independently. https://www.readingrockets.org/classroom/classroom-strategies/choral-reading

Partner Reading is an activity in which students work cooperatively, reading an assigned text together, usually with a strategically chosen reading buddy. Students take turns reading and providing each other with useful feedback while the teacher can monitor the class and intervene when necessary. https://www.readingrockets.org/classroom/classroom-strategies/partner-reading

Home Strategies can help significantly, especially if reading becomes a playful and enjoyable activity. Parents can encourage and foster reading automaticity and fluency with some of these activities. https://www.readingrockets.org/literacy-home/reading-101-guide-parents/your-first-grader/fluency-activities

Known as "I Do, We Do, You Do," the Gradual Release of Responsibility model is a clear example of explicit and systematic instruction. The teacher begins by explaining and modeling the skill and its purpose (I Do); continues by providing opportunities for guided practice (We Do); and finally releases the responsibility into independent practice. The process is systematic because there is a clear and predefined manner in which the tasks are arranged from easiest with the most support, and gradually progressing to the more difficult, independent tasks.

For example, the teacher can first explain that they will be working on identifying and naming the first sound (phoneme) in a word. He will continue to demonstrate with a word, such as “big” breaking up the word in the sounds b, i, g, and then naming the vowel “b.” He can model this a few times, and then move on to guided practice, working as a group with a few more words. Finally, the students work and practice on their own. The teacher should monitor and provide feedback as the students work.

The parts of our brain that process sounds (the frontal region) and recognize images (the visual cortex) exist at birth; but the part that connects those together (the phonological cortex), needs to be wired through explicit, systematic instruction and practice (Reading Rockets, n.d.).

Another way to understand the reading brain is the Four-Part Processing Model, a representation of the parts of our brain that work to read fluently (Betgevergiz, 2020):

• Orthographic processor: acts when we see a word, recognizing the written symbols

• Phonological processor: helps with sound recognition and production, this is our phonics toolbox

• Meaning processor: interprets the possible meaning of words

• Context processor: supports the meaning processor to help understand.

  
  

The Simple View of Reading (WR x LC = RC)

The Simple View of Reading, in accordance with the Science of Reading incorporates five essential components into its instructional model: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension (Lexia, 2022).

The Simple View of Reading model shows that reading comprehension results from the product of two necessary skills: decoding and language comprehension. The multiplicative nature of the formula stresses that if either of the components is cero or close to cero, overall reading comprehension is minimal. Existing brain research supports the model, since both components are shown to interact in the brain in the process of reading (Lexia, 2022).

Other approaches competing against SoR:

• Whole Language rejects explicit and systematic teaching of phonics; introduces reading through short and repetitive stories; puts emphasis on early writing; sees learning to read as a natural process; and teaches students to ask others or rely on context to guess new words (Parker, 2021).

• Balanced Literacy is a non-systematic approach which incorporates most of the Whole Language approach, adding a thin layer of phonics instruction in a flexible and unsystematic manner (Buckingham, 2020; Goldberg, 2019; Parker, 2021).

  
  

Structured Literacy is based on SoR research, and it teaches phonology, orthography, syntax, morphology, semantics, and discourse in a systematic, explicit, and cumulative manner (Ordetx, 2021). Although all students benefit from Structured Literacy, it is essential for the success of students with dyslexia (Ordetx, 2021):

• Systematic: the material is arranged from the easiest and most basic concepts, gradually progressing to the more difficult.

• Explicit: there is direct instruction, with teacher interaction, involving prompt and specific feedback.

• Cumulative: each step builds on concepts learned previously.