Suffix: -anol

E.g. Methanol, Ethanol, Propanol, Butanol, Pentanol, Hexanol, Heptanol, Octonol, Nonanol, Decanol.

• Electrolysis is the process where current is passed from an external source through an electrolyte to force a non-spontaneous redox reaction to occur.

• Electroylsis occurs in an electrolytic cell

  
  

H₂O ⇌ H⁺ + OH^-

These negative and positive ions can compete with the other cations and anions present in the electrolyte, which leads to different products during discharge.

Answer:

Explanation:

Things to take note of:

NaOH(aq) --> Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Procedure:

1.Add a few drops of NaOH(aq) to sample solution

2.Observe for any changes(precipitation and effervescence)

3.Add NaOH(aq) in excess till no further change is observed

NH3(g) +H2O(l) <--> NH4+(aq)+OH-(aq)

Procedure:

1.Add a few drops of NH3(aq) to sample solution

2.Observe for any changes(precipitation and effervescence)

3.Add NH3(aq) in excess till no further change is observed

Functional Group: C_nH_2n+1COOH

Suffix: -anoic acid

E.g. Methanoic Acic, Ethanoic Acid, Propanoic Acid, Butanoic Acid, Pentanoic Acid, Hexanoic Acid, Heptanoic Acid, Octanoic Acid, Nonanoic Acid, Decanoic Acid.

Carboxyl Group (minus H)

Suffix: -noate

E.g. Methanoate, Ethanoate, Propanoate, Buatanoate, Pentanoate, Hexanoate, Heptanoate, Ocatanoate, Nonanoate, Decanoate.

Mass: SI unit --> kilogram (kg)(beam or electronic balance )

Temperature :SI unit --> degree celsius (°C ) or kelvin ( K ) (Thermometer)

Volume : SI unit --> cubic metre(m^3) (Beaker, Measuring cylinder ,pipette, burette)

Beaker-10

Measuring cylinder-10.0

Pipette-10.0

Burette-10.00

1. used to collect gases that is denser than air

2.gas will travel downwards as it is denser than air

E.g.(Carbon dioxide ,Chlorine gas )

Upward delivery :

1. used to collect gases that are less dense than air

2. gas will travel upwards as it is less dense than air

   E.g.(Ammonia gas,Hydrogen gas )

Displacement of water :

1.Used for gases that are insoluble or slightly soluble in water

2. Gas is bubbled through water into a jar as the gas does not dissolves or only slightly dissolves in water

E.g.(Oxygen gas,Hydrogen gas,Carbon dioxide )

(It cannot dry Ammonia as it will react with one another)

2) Quicklime

(It cannot dry Acidic gases as it will react with one another)

3) Fused calcium chloride

(It cannot dry Ammonia as it will react with one another)

2) large particles of the solid will be trapped by the pores of the filter paper while the smaller liquid particles pass through

2)The solution is heated until all the water has evaporated

3)The soluble solid must to be stable to heat so that it will not decompose and must contain water of crystallisation .

i.e(carbon ,hydrogen{hydrocarbon}

The light fraction is less viscous, burn more easily and have an decreased number of carbon atoms.

The heavier fraction is more viscous, burn less easily and have an increased number of carbon atoms.

Acronym:

PPNKDL

Pretty Princess Never Kiss Decent Looking Boys

Petroleum Petrol Naphta Kerosene Diesel Lubricating Oil Bitumen

1)Natural gas (Methane,CH4): colourless, odourless

2)Crude oil / petroleum (mixture of fractions with different boiling points )

-To generate thermal energy and electricity

-Power motor vehicles and industrial activities

10% of the crude oil is used as petrochemical feedstock :

-Manufacture of plastics ,detergents ,medicines fertilisers, pesticides and synthetic rubber

CO₂+ H₂O + energy

-Bioethanol-->Sugarcane

-Biogas-->Release of CH4 during food waste decomposition

-Human: Incomplete combustion of fuels in car engines/fossil fuels 2C+O2-->2CO

Effects:

-It binds irreversibly with haemoglobin and prevents the transport of oxygen around the body; deprives the cells of oxygen, leading to suffocation or death

Preventive Measure:

-Use catalytic converters in vehicles to convert CO into CO2(less harmful)

2NO+2CO-->N2+CO2

2NO2+4CO-->N2+4CO2

Source:

-Natural: Volcanic Eruptions

-Human: combustion of sulfuric-containing fuels eg; coal (More important)

Effects:

-Living things: SO2 causes breathing difficulties due to irritation of respiratory system

-Environment: reacts with oxygen and moisture in the air to form sulfuric acid that dissolves in water to form acid rain

2SO2 + O2 + 2H2O --> 2H2SO4

Preventive Measure:

-Flue gas desulfurisation: Acidic exhaust can be treated with a wet mixture of calcium carbonate CaCO3 or calcium oxide CaOH2. Salt formed is harmless can be easily disposed.

CaCO3 + SO2 --> CaSO3 + CO2

Source:

-Natural: Lightning activity

-Human: Internal combustion engines(at high temperatures, nitrogen in the air combines with oxygen in the air)

N2 + O2 --> NxOy

Effects:

-Living things: Oxides of nitrogen damage the lungs

-Environment: NO2 reacts with oxygen and moisture in the air to form nitric acid that dissolves in water to form acid rain

4NO2 + O2 + 2H2O --> 4HNO3

Preventive Measure:

-Catalytic convertors to convert oxides of nitrogen into nitrogen(harmless)

2NO2 + 4CO --> N2 + 4CO2

-Corrodes marble(limestone);marble leprosy and metal structures

-Acidifies soil and lakes/rivers, killing vegetation and aquatic life

Greater distance between particles, Greater PE

Edit with care

Please-Potassium

Stop-Sodium

Calling-Calcium

Me-Magnesium ________________ React with water

A-Aluminium

Cute-Carbon

Zebra-Zinc

I-Iron ________________ React with steam

Totally-Tin

Love-Lead ____________ React with acid

Hot -Hydrogen

Curvy -Copper

Slavic-Silver

Girls-Gold

Combustion:

C₃H₈ (Propane) + O₂ -> CO₂ + H₂O

Step 1: x2 to C₃H₈

2C₃H₈ +O₂ -> CO₂ + H₂O

Step 2: Balance C

2C₃H₈ +O₂ -> 6CO₂ + H₂O

Step 3: Balance H

2C₃H₈ + O₂ -> 6CO₂ + 8H₂O

Step 4: Balance O

2C₃H₈ + 10 O₂ -> 6CO₂ + 8H₂O

Step 5: LCM

C₃H₈ + 5O₂ -> 3CO₂ + 4H₂O

:33

(a compound that consist of a metal and non-metal)

Properties:

Malleable-ability to be hammered without breaking

Ductile-easily bendable without breaking

General Formula: (C_nH_2n+2), n greater or equals to 1

E.g. Methane, Ethane, Propane, Butane, Pentane, Hexane, Heptane, Octane, Nonane, Decane.

A family of compound with the same general formula and have similar chemical properties (undergo the same chemical reactions) because they have the same functional group. Each member must differ from the next member by (CH₂) or 14 mr. There will be a gradual change in their physical change as you go down the homologous series.

1) have a weak intermolecular forces of attraction between molecules

2) have a strong covalent bond within the molecule

3) As the no. of carbon atoms increase the melting and boiling points of the alkanes

4)As the molecular size increases ,the more viscous (harder for the solution to flow)

5) Alkanes are insoluble water but soluble in most organic solvents

6) As the molecular size increases ,their flammability decreases

Chemical properties:

1)Alkanes are generally unreactive because they consist of strong bonds like (C-C) ,(C-H),they are very hard to break.

2) Substitution with hydrogen (condition: UV light / sunlight )

3) Combustion

- complete combustion

• CH_{4 (g)}+2O_2(g) --> CO_2(g) +H₂O_(g)

- incomplete combustion

• C₄H_10(g) +3O_2(g)--> 2CO_(g) + 3C_(s) +5H₂O_(g)

  
  

• An acid is a substance which dissolves in water to give hydrogen ions (H⁺) as the only positive ions.

• Acids are originally covalent molecules made up of molecules containing hydrogen atom(s) and other non-metal atoms. When added to water, the acid molecules dissociates (ionize) to form hydrogen ions and negative ions.

• Strong Acid: Complete dissociation to produce high concentration of H⁺ ions.

• Weak Acid: Partial dissociation to produce low concentration of H⁺ ions.

• Sour taste

• Turns blue litmus paper red

• pH less than 7

• Turns universal indicator yellow, orange, or red. (depends on strength)

• Able to conduct electricity

Faster in gases than in liquid due to higher kinetic energy

Affected by Mr and temperature; lower the Mr the faster they move; higher the temperature the faster they move

Different atomic sizes disrupts the regular arrangement of metal layers hence unable to slide past each other easily

It has alkaline properties and is corrosive

It dissolves easily in water to form aqueous ammonia which turns litmus paper blue

Nitrogen is obtained through fractional distillation of liquid air

Hydrogen is obtained through cracking of petroleum

Exothermic reaction

Conditions:

250atm, 400-450 degrees Celsius and finely divided iron catalyst

N2(g)+3H2(g)--> 2NH3(g)

<--

High temperature; faster rate of reaction low yield

Low temperature; slower rate of reaction high yield

High pressure; faster rate of reaction too costly

Place moist red litmus paper at the mouth of the test tube

Moist red litmus paper turn blue

Chlorine:

Place moist blue litmus paper at the mouth of the test tube

Moist red litmus paper turn red than bleached white

Sulfur dioxide:

Place a piece of filter paper dipped in acidified potassium manganate(VII) at mouth of test tube

Purple acidified potassium manganate(VII) turn colourless

Carbon dioxide:

Pass gas evolved into limewater

White ppt formed

Oxygen:

Insert glowing splint into the test tube

Glowing splint is rekindled

Hydrogen:

Insert a lighted splint into the test tube

Lighted splint extinguished with a 'pop' sound

note : n must be 2 and above

functional group ( C=C ,Carbon-Carbon double bond)

Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons ,meaning they are highly reactive.

1) have a weak intermolecular forces of attraction between molecules

2) have a strong covalent bond within the molecule

3) As the no. of carbon atoms increase the melting and boiling points of the alkenes

4)As the molecular size increases ,the more viscous (harder for the solution to flow)

5) Alkenes are insoluble water but soluble in most organic solvents

6) As the molecular size increases ,their flammability decreases

1) have a weak intermolecular forces of attraction between molecules

2) have a strong covalent bond within the molecule

3) As the no. of carbon atoms increase the melting and boiling points of the alkenes

4)As the molecular size increases ,the more viscous (harder for the solution to flow)

5) Alkenes are insoluble water but soluble in most organic solvents

6) As the molecular size increases ,their flammability decreases

C2H4 + 2O2 --> 2CO + 2H2O(incomplete combustion)

Addition Reactions:

Hydrogenation:

Bromination:

Hydration:C2H4 + H2O --> C2H4OH(300 degree Celsius, 60 atm , Phosphoric (V)acid as a catalyst)(alkene to alcohol)

Addition polymerisation

Conditions : 500^o C - 700 ^o C, at 1 atmospheric pressure with aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃and silicon dioxide SiO₂ )

Functional group : (-OH, Hydroxyl)

Note: It is mainly used as solvent for organic solute

Down the homologous series the melting and Boling points increases, decreasing flammability , more viscous, less volatile

alcohol + oxidising agent -->carboxylic acid + water OR

alcohol + atmospheric oxygen ---> carboxylic acid and water

Combustion:C₂H₅OH + 3 O₂ → 2 CO₂ + 3 H₂O (l)(complete combustion) AND

C₂H₅OH + 2O₂ = 2CO +3 H₂O(incomplete combustion)

Esterification:CH₃COOH + C₂H₅OH ⇌ (conc.H₂SO₄ )CH ₃ COOC₂H ₅ + H₂O

acid reaction

Alcohol + carboxylic acid --><-- ester + water(conditions are concentrated sulfuric acid, warm )

Condensation polymerisation :When monomers combine to form condensation polymers with removal of small molecules .E.g water molecules .

polyamide :Nylon is normally used in clothing

polyester: Terylene is normally used in clothing ,curtain, parachutes ,fishing lines ,sleeping bags

Ester linkage : dicarboxylic acid and diol

Disadavntages: land pollution, water pollution, air pollution

To mitigate the effects :

Physical methods:

Chemical methods:Cracking

Depolymerisation

molecular formular:(CH3COO)2Ca

1) Biogas

• it is produced during the decomposition of plants and animals

2) Bioethanol

• made from sugarcane

• have to be treated and fermented with yeast to produce bioethanol