1. Ecosystem Diversity
2. Community Diversity
3. Genetic Diversity
   
   

1. Biodiversity is rich in wetlands and beneath rotting logs.
2. Tropical regions, such as Costa Rica, exhibit high biodiversity.
3. Human influence is driving an increase in extinction rates.
4. Over 1.5 million animal and 350,000 plant species have been identified.
5. Biodiversity refers to the variety of species capable of successful reproduction.

1. Made of cells 
2. Adaptations
3. Reproduction
4. Growth and development
5. Uses energy
   
   

• Commensalism
• Mutualism
• Parasitism

• What it eats
• What eats it
• Its habitat (where it lives)
• Nesting site or range
• Its effect on both the populations around it and its environment
  
  

• Introduction of a new predator
• Spread of a new disease
• Introduction of a toxic substance

• Either brown hair or not
• Either attached earlobes or not
• Either you can roll your tongue or you can’t

• Height is heritable but diet (what you eat) can affect it. Height of North Americans now vs. the 19th century shows variation due to better nutrition and access to variety of nutritious food. 

• Skin tone can become darker with exposure to the sun. 

• Hydrangeas produce blue flowers in acidic soil and pink flowers in alkaline soil 

• All offspring from asexual reproduction are identical to the parent

• All offspring inherit identical characteristics because through the process they make an identical copy of themselves. 

The four forms of asexual reproduction that we will cover are:

1. Binary fission

2. Budding

3. Spore production

4. Vegetative reproduction 

• Bacteria

• Many fungi (mushrooms)
• Green algae
• Some moulds

• Most plants that can produce seeds by sexual reproduction can also reproduce asexually from cuttings, bulbs or runners.
• Some plants use their seeds to reproduce both asexually and sexually. Asexually the embryos develop without the male gamete therefore producing a genetically identical offspring of the parent plant. 
  
  

• Throughout the growing season, female produce female young without fertilization 
• These females mature and continue to produce females
• In the fall (environmental change), produce generations that include both males and females. 
  
  

2.    Genetic code: Arrangement of four chemical “letters” on a DNA molecule that can be arranged into “words” that form the instructions for making an organism

3.    Chromosomes: A structure in which DNA is arranged and along which genes are located

4.    Gene: A segment of DNA, located at one particular place on a chromosome, which determines a specific characteristic of an organism

5.    Alleles: A possible form of a gene

6.    Mitosis: A type of cell division that produces two identical daughter cells from one parent cell

7.    Meiosis: A type of cell division that produces 4 sex cells from one parent cell; each cell contains half the genetic material of the original cell 

8.    Traits: A characteristic of an organism

9.    Purebred: Referring to a plant or animal that has ancestors all with the same form of a trait

10.  Hybrid: An organism produced by crossing two individuals purebred for different forms of a trait

11.  Dominant trait: The outward form observed when two opposite-acting alleles are inherited (i.e. long length in fruit flies; an offspring with one short leg allele and one long leg allele will grow long legs; the short leg allele is recessive because it has no influence if a dominant, long leg allele is present

12.  Recessive trait: Recessive traits can be covered up by another (i.e. if a purebred black cat (BB) is crossed with a purebred white cat (bb), all the offspring will be hybrid black (Bb)).  Recessive traits will never show if a dominant allele is present. If both alleles are recessive, it will show.

13.  Incomplete dominance: A pattern of inheritance seen when two different alleles are present at the same gene location, but neither is dominant.

Example, red flower bred with a white flower, the offspring would be nor red or white. Does not resemble parents

Hybrid: An organism produced by crossing two individuals purebred for different forms of a trait 

The difference between hybrid and purebred is that hybrid is a resulting offspring of a cross between two different animals or two different breeds of the same animal. In contrast to that, purebred are offspring of some kind of animals having the genetic similarity. 

Phenotype: the expression of the genotype that is visible to other people and can be observed.

Dominant traits is a characteristic that always show over another (i.e. black coat in cats will always show instead of white so it’s dominant).

Genes produce the characteristics but since each parent gives a gene for a trait, the offspring will carry 2 versions (2 alleles) for each trait (i.e. dominant black = B so if a cat is purebred black it can be represented as BB).

Recessive traits can be covered up by another (i.e. if a purebred black cat (BB) is crossed with a purebred white cat (bb), all the offspring will be hybrid black (Bb)). 

If two hybrid parents are crossed, the result can be tracked by a Punnett square and looks like this:       Bb x Bb

Offspring genotype ratio = 1 purebred black, 2 hybrid black and 1 purebred white

Offspring phenotype ratio = 3 black and 1 white

1. Urbanization

2. The expansion of human industries (i.e. agriculture and forestry)

What reduces biological diversity on Earth?

1. The extinction of some species

2. The decrease in population of other species

3. The degradation of ecosystems

Extinction: No longer in existence on the planet

Extinction is a natural part of Earth’s history. Scientists estimate that 99% of all the species that have ever existed are now extinct. 

• Natural selectionis usually a slow process. Even with a lot of variation, sometimes the environment changes too much and quickly for the species to survive. 

• Most extinctions are not mass extinctions (think dinosaurs) however they happen over a long period of time. 

• Scientist speculate that more species will disappear over the next decade!

1. Catastrophic events such as volcanic eruptions, floods, or fires

2. Lack of food due to overpopulation

3. Disease
   

Human Reasons of Expirtation or Extinction:

Human populations continue to grow and require land for houses and food production. Today, most extinctions and extirpations are due to human activity:

1. Habitat destruction

2. Introduction of non-native species

3. Over-hunting

Human activity is now the leading cause of worldwide species loss.

• Genes are located on the chromosomes

• Each chromosome contains numerous gene locations

• Like chromosomes, genes come in pairs

• Both gene pairs carry DNA instructions for the same thing (i.e. leg length in the fruit fly)

The same gene (leg length) occupy matching locations but may not be exactly the same in both locations

Most genes in most species exist in a different arrangement than their exact DNA sequence. These possible forms are known as alleles. 

Allele: A possible form of a gene

During the binary fission process, the parent cell must first make an exact copy of its DNA before cell division to ensure the new cell contains a complete copy of the DNA. For a short period, the parent cell has twice the amount of DNA.

Mitosis is the technical name of this form of asexual reproduction.

Mitosis occurs in the body cells and is responsible for growth and cellular reproduction in multicellular organisms. 

Meiosis: A type of cell division that produces 4 sex cells from one parent cell; each cell contains half the genetic material of the original cell  

Meiosis requires two cell divisions. The “parent” cell duplicates the pair of chromosomes (46 turns into 92 pairs of chromosomes). 

The first cell division separates the pairs so two cells now contain 46 chromosomes each.  The second division separates the pairs so only 1 chromosome of each set is in the gamete cell (23 chromosomes).

Through his work on pea plants (1856-1863), he discovered the fundamental law of inheritance.

1. The Law of Segregation: He concluded that genes come in pairs and are inherited as distinct units, one from each parent. Parental genes are randomly separated from the sex cells so that sex cells contain only one gene of the pair.

2. Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits are sorted separately from one another so that the inheritance of one trait is not dependent on the inheritance of another.

3. The Law of Dissortment: An organism with alternative forms of a gene will express the form that is dominant (YY or Yy).

The dominant-recessive pattern of inheritance doesn’t always happen in every case. Sometimes neither trait is dominant and so both traits are expressed as a blend of colours (i.e. when pure red snapdragons (a kind of flower) is crossed with a pure white snapdragon, the result is offspring with pink flowers. 

• Smoking during pregnancy: low birth rate

• Air pollution, pesticide exposure, and stress can also be associated with low birth rates and preterm delivery.

• Children born to mothers who go hungry (famine) during pregnancy run a greater risk of heart disease and can alter the lipid profile of the child causing them to be more overweight into adulthood. 

• Drinking alcohol while pregnant can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Children with FASD show prominent facial features and permanent damage to brain development.

The process which humans select the traits is called artificial selection. This is different than natural selection where the environment “selects” the traits. 

Artificial selection has long been used in agriculture to produce animals and crops with desirable traits. The meats sold today are the result of the selective breeding of chickens, cattle, sheep, and pigs. Many fruits and vegetables have been improved or even created through artificial selection. 

For example, broccoli, cauliflower, and cabbage were all derived from the wild mustard plant through selective breeding. Artificial selection appeals to humans since it is faster than natural selection and allow humans to mold organisms to their needs.

Humans have practiced artificial selection for over 10,000 years. Nearly 70% of the calories consumed by humans derived from 15 species of plants - the top four of these being rice, wehat, corn, and sugarcane. All these species, along with oats, barely, and sorghum, are all grasses in the family Poaceae.

1. Artificial Insemination: Sperm from a desirable bull is taken and artificially inserted to many cows. 

2. Invitro fertilization: Sperm from a desirable bull and eggs from a desirable cow are harvested in a lab to be fertilized. Once fertilized, the embryo is implanted into a cow (host/surrogate) to grow and develop.

Examples:

1. Insulin producing gene is inserted into bacteria’s DNA. Remember bacteria reproduces by binary fission so divides fast!

2. Cotton, corn, cauliflower, potato plants etc. have been genetically engineered to include the gene from Bacillus thuringiensis that produces a toxin (Bt) that is poisonous to insects. When the insect eats the plant, they die. This decreases the need to use pesticides.

3. Canola plants that are not resistant to flea beetles are genetically inserted the gene from canola plants that are naturally resistant to them.    

In 1997, scientists were able to clone a sheep named Dolly. This was a genetic breakthrough however it does come with challenges. There have been many cases of unsuccessful pregnancies, birth defects, and death. Also, cloned animals could be more susceptible to diseases.  

Three key goals of this treaty:

• conservation of biological diversity

• sustainable use of the components of biological diversity

fair and equitable share of the benifits arising from the use of genetic resources

The Canadian Biodiversity Strategy focuses on four things:

1. In-situ conservation

2. Ex-situ conservation

3. Promoting the sustainable use of resources

Ecological approach to the management of human activities

Why?

Protected areas allow organisms to live relatively undisterbed in their naturalhabitat.

• The Nature Conservatory of Canada - acquire land or raise money for ongoing protection of land. Land owners also return some of their property back to its natural state (reclamation) 

•  Ducks Unlimited - restores wetland areas

For example: Swift Fox

1800’s saw a decline due to agriculture, increasing competition and poisoning programs aimed at wolves and coyotes. 1973 - swift foxes were released to the wild by Alberta government, and World Wildlife Fund. 2000-2001 census showed an increase to 560 along the AB/Sask border!

• Any species that is classified as endangered or threatened is protected by law from hunting and capture or for plants, from being picked and transplanted.

1994 - National Accord for the Protection of Species at Risk - which allows each province to develop legislation to protect vulnerable plants and animals from becoming extinct and create legislation and programs. 

• Wetland perennial introduced into Canada from Europe in 1800’s

• Has no natural enemies 

• No bird, mammal, or fish feeds on it or uses it for shelter

• Causes a reduction of natural plant communities

• Has been designated as a noxious weed

  
  

Ways to Control the Purple Loosestrife:

• Volunteers pull the plants and monitoring infestation sites throughout the province

biological control - Introduce a predator to control populations (species of Weevil)

• Plays and important role in conserving forest, aquatic, and agricultural genetic resources 

• Seed banks around the world - store seeds from varieties of crop plants (Zac Efron - potato episode)

• Canada maintains the seed bank for barley and oats

  
  

• Name

• Size

• Color

• Shape

• Raw vs cooked

• Texture

• Shell or unshelled

• Origin

Chemistry is the study of properties of matter and how matter changes. 

*****Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.*****

What are some examples of things in our classroom that is made up of matter?

• Humans

• Desks

• Chrome books

• Clock

• Shoes

• Chair

• White boards

• Water

• Air

Two types of safety symbols

• WHMIS

• HHPS

WHMIS

Workplace

Hazardous

Materials

Information

System

Found on Workplace products - mostly cleaners and chemicals (labs)

HHPS

Hazardous

Household

Product

Symbol

Found on household products - mostly cleaners

For example both ammonia and chlorine bleach are used as household cleaning agents. If the two substances are mixed they produce highly toxic chloramine gas. Exposure to chloramine gas can cause irritation to your eyes, nose, throat, and lungs. In high concentrations, it can lead to coma and death.

WHMIS 2015 Safety Data Sheets (SDSs) are summary documents containing information on the hazards posed by various products and providing instruction and advice on the necessary safety precautions.

MSDS - Material Safety Data Sheet (Old way)

Sometimes you may still see the old MSDS 1988. The new regulations in Canada require all new products to be labelled using WHMIS 2015 and use SDS but MSDS format is still being used at times.

1. All matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms

2. Atoms of the same element are identical in mass and properties, and atoms of different elements have different masses and properties

Atoms unite chemically in specific proportions to produce new substances

Scientists have now added to Dalton’s Particle Theory (Atomic Theory) a number of additional points in an attempt to further explain the nature of matter. 

1. Particles of matter are constantly moving and bouncing off each other. This is similar to billiard balls coliding with one another. The amount of movement and the number of collisions is dependant on the heat energy available. 

2. Particles with opposite charges attract each other. Particles become positively charged by losing electrons and negatively charged by gaining electrons. These charged particles are referred to as ions. Positive ions combine with negative ions to form new substances. 

3. Temperature affects the movement of particles. When the temperature increases, the particles collide more frequently and with more force. They become spaced out. When the spaces become larger, the substances changes state. Ice becomes liquid water at 0℃

• This means every object in any state is made up of tiny particles too small to see

• There are more particles in a given volume of solid than there are in the same volume of a liquid or a gas

2. The tiny particles of matter are always moving and vibrating. For solids, this movement is like wiggling in one place. For liquids, the particles are sliding around and over each other. For gases, this movement means moving as far as the space they are in allows

3. The particles in matter may be attracted to each other or bonded together.

   • Some particles, such as water, have more attraction for other particles, such as salt, than for each other.

4. The particles have spaces between them.

   • Notice the difference in the amount of space between particles of a solid and a gas 

Organising Matter

Matter exists as a solid, liquid, or gas called the states of matter (3 states). 

Matter is defined as anything that has mass and occupies space. Because rocks, water, and air have mass and occupy space, they are all considered matter. Matter is broken down into molecules, and molecules are further broken down into atoms. The basis of matter, therefore, is the atom.

Sublimation is the transition of a substance directly from the solid to the gas state, without passing through the liquid state

Conversion of a vapor or gas to a liquid

Physical and chemical properties show whether a substance is “pure” or a mixture and each can be broken down into two categories. 

1. Element: matter that consists of only one kind of atom. Elements are the basic building blocks for all compounds. All elements are grouped into a special chart called the Periodic Table (currently 118 elements, i.e. H (hydrogen), C (carbon), O (oxygen), Au (gold)

2. Compound: matter that is made when two or more elements chemically unite in a specific ratio. Compounds can only be separated by a chemical reaction. Examples: Water is created by combining elements hydrogen and oxygen (H₂O).  Sugar is created by combining elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁)

They are grouped into heterogeneous and homogeneous mixtures.

solution: is a mixture made up of particles that dissolve in each other and appear to be the same throughout. Examples in the image.

1. Mechanical mixtures: has different particles that are visible to the eye. Soil for example, has particles of humus, sand, leaves, and rock. 

2. Suspension: is a cloudy mixture which particles of one substance is held within another. Mud is made up of dirt suspended in water. Eventually the mixture settles to see the different parts.

3. Colloid: Is also a cloudy mixture with very fine floating particles that cannot easily be seperated out from the other substance. Milk has cream particles suspended in liquid. Also, ketchup, ice cream, butter, mayo, and jam are examples. 

Matter can be identified by its physical and chemical properties. 

1. Qualitative property: observed through the senses

2. Quantitative property: derived from measurements

• Iron, for example, combines with oxygen in the presence of water to form rust; chromium does not oxidize.

• Nitroglycerin is very dangerous because it explodes easily

• Neon poses almost no hazard because it is very unreactive.

Examples of Change

A good example of a chemical change is what happens when you take a tablespoon of baking soda and mix it with a cup of vinegar. You will see a lot of bubbles and foam forming. These bubbles and foam are evidence of a chemical reaction. The gas that is produced in the bubbles and foam is called carbon dioxide. 

A physical change does not affect the type of matter, but it will result in the matter having different physical properties. 

A chemical change will produce new matter with different characteristics from the original matter.

Freeze drying: food is frozen to convert the water inside the food to ice then put in a pressure chamber to change the ice to a gas (sublimation). 98% of the water is removed!

MRE (meal, ready to eat) is similar and used for the military, astronauts, and hikers. To heat it up the food is placed in a Flameless Ration Heater pouch (contains magnesium, iron, and salt) with water. This creates a chemical change and releases heat

• Soda pop bottles

• Biodegradable plastics (utensils, bottles, plastic wrap)

• Corn-based solvents (for removing paint, nail polish)

• Gasohol (renewable fuel for automobiles)

Corn is put through a chemical change by fermentation and purified.

8000 BC (stone age) the first chemists were born. These chemists learned how to start a fire, control the fire  and eventually learned how to make glass and ceramic material. 

Between 6000 BC and 1000 BC chemists investigated metals such as gold and copper. 

Gold- attractive colour, easy to shape but not good for weapons. 

Copper- used to make pots, coins, tools, and jewellery. Only useful when heat otherwise brittle in natural state.

About 4500 BC copper lead to the creation of bronze which is produced when copper and tin are heated together (the Bronze Age).

Around 1200 BC a group called hittites (in the Middle East), discovered how to extract iron from rocks (Iron Age).

Iron combined with carbon produces steel which made tools, armour and weapons. 

The word “chemistry” may be derived from the Greek word Khemeia, meaning juice of the plant. Many cultures where learning ways to extract and use different types of liquids. Mummies are the creation of wrapping clothes in pigments and resin of the juniper tree.

Democritus stated that each type of material was made up of different type of atomos. By mixing different atomos, you could make new materials!

Around 350 BC Aristotle (Greek philosopher) had a different hypothesis. He stated that everything was made of earth, fire, air, and water. His theory was preferred for over 2000 years and only because he was more known!

• Interested in the matter and change

• Based their theories on observations and experiments

In the 1660s, Robert Boyle experimented with the behaviour of gases.

• Investigated gases under pressure

• Convinced that matter was made up of tiny particles (agreed with Democritus’ theory)

• Believed the tiny particles came in different shapes and sizes and would group together to form substances

The word “alchamy” comes front he Arabic word alkimiya, which means the chemist.

Today, the study of alchemy would be called pseudo-science meaning, it’s not really science because it includes magic. 

He is considered the “father of modern chemistry” and redefines the term element.

Element: Pure substance that cannot be broken down into other substances; substance made up of only one type of atom 

1897 J.J. Thomson discovered a subatomic particle (smaller than an atom) and named them electrons and said they were a part of the atom.

Called it the “raisin bun model” where the atom was positively charged with negatively charged electrons embedded in the sphere.

1904 Hantaro Nagaoka changed the model to look like a miniature solar system. The center was positively charged and the negatively charged electrons orbiting around it. 

From experiments with high speed particles, he was able to infer the existence of an atom's nucleus.

Neils Bohr worked with Rutherford and suggested that electrons do not orbit randomly in an atom but move in specific circular orbit call electron shells. Electrons jump between each shell by gaining or losing energy (1922). Bohr model = solar system model

James Chadwick refined Bohr’s model and discovered the nucleus contained both positively charged particles and neutral particles he called protons and neutrons.

Protons and neutrons have roughly the same mass but an electron has only 1/1837th the mass of either a proton or a neutron

Today most people still use the Bohr model to describe particles that make up an atom. 

Currently, quantum mechanics model describes the atom as a cloud of electrons surrounding the nucleus known as quantum atom.  

Electrons: Invisible negatively charged particle that orbits the nucleus of an atom

Nucleus: Positively charged centre of an atom; contains protons and neutrons 

Electron shells: Orbit of electrons around the nucleus of an atom

Protons: Positively charged particle in the nucleus of an atom 

Neutrons: Neutral particle in the nucleus of an atom

By 1800’s more than 30 elements had been identified (Copper, Lead, Gold, Silver, Iron, Carbon, Tin, Sulfur, Mercury, Zinc, Platinum, Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth, Phosphorus, Cobalt, Nickel, Magnesium, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Barium, Chlorine, Manganese, Molybdenum, Tungsten, Tellurium, Strontium.

In the 1800s, John Dalton developed a new set of symbols for elements.

In 1814, Jons Berzelius suggested using letters instead of pictures to represent each element. For elements with the same first letter, a second letter would be added (i.e. H for hydrogen, and He for helium) and this is what we still use today.

For example, WHMIS or classifying matter (pure substance or mixtures)

Organizing elements is what early chemists strived for. Advances  in this classification revealed trends in the properties  of known elements and has allowed scientists to predict elements before they were found! To date, scientists have found 118 elements.

When this was done, John Newlands realized that there were patterns in the properties of elements at regular intervals.

He called this the “law of octaves”

He also noticed some gaps and predicted that new elements would be discovered that would have the properties and atomic mass needed to fit into the gaps. Turned out, he was right! 

For example: in 1875, gallium fit the same properties of an element he predicted! And another one in 1939, the element francium discovered by French chemist Marguerite Perey.

The number above the element’s symbol on the left is the atomic number. 

The number shows how many protons (pᐩ) are in the nucleus of one atom of the element. Since atoms are neutral, the number of protons equals the number of electrons (e⁻)

Atomic number = # of (pᐩ) = # of (e⁻)

The atomic number will always show you how many electrons are in an atom of the specific element.

ATOMIC NUMBER = PROTON = ELECTRON

ATOMIC MASS = MASS OF PROTON + MASS OF NEUTRON

^

Mass of

Atomic Mass = Mass of protons (pᐩ) + Mass of Neutrons (n⁰)

Mass Number = Number of Protons (pᐩ) + Number of Neutron (n⁰)

Mass number can vary because some atoms of the same element can have different amounts of neutrons.

Carbon-12 (12 = 6 + 6), has 6 protons and 6 neutrons

Carbon-13 (13 = 6 + 7), has 6 protons and 7 neutrons

Carbon-14 (14 = 6 + 8), has 6 protons and 8 neutrons

Recall: The atomic mass on the periodic table is stated as a decimal number because it is an average of the various isotopes of an element.  

Mass # = (# of pᐩ) + (# of n⁰)

^

Number of

Number of neutrons = mass number - atomic number

Atoms of the element chromium (cr) have an atomic number of 24 and a mass number of 52. How many neutrons are in the nucleus of a chromium atom?

52 - 24 = 28 neutrons in a chromium atom

The composition of any atom can be illustrated with a shorthand notation using atomic number and the mass number. Both are written before the chemical symbol, with the mass number written as a superscript and the atomic number written as a subscript. The chromium atom discuss above would be written as 

***Check Image***

Another way to refer to a specific atom is to write the mass number of the atom after the name, separated by a hyphen. The above atom would be written as chromium-52

Carbon-14 is present in nature in very low concentrations (<0.0001%) and is radioactive. This means that the atom is unstable and releases energy easily. 

Since Carbon-14 is found in all living things, scientists can use this to carbon date to find the age of dinosaurs.

The periodic table is a series of boxes in horizontal rows (aperiod)and vertical columns (a group or family).

Period: horizontal row of elements in the periodic table

Group: vertical column of elements in the periodic table; elements in a family all have similar chemical properties

• Periods run horizontally.

• Moving L → R the properties of the elements change

  • Gradually change from metals to nonmetals

Move from most reactive metals to less reactive

• Shiny

• Malleable

• Ductile

• Good Conductors

• E.g. Ni (Nickel) Atomic #28

Non-Metals

• Dull

• Brittle

• Not good conductors (except carbon) therefore insulators

• E.g. P (Phosphorus) Atomic #15

There is an increase in reactivity as we move down the group

• Lithium

• Sodium

• Potassium

• Rubidium

• Caesium

• Francium

These react when exposed to air and water but not as reactive as alkali metals

Can combine with other elements to form new substances with useful properties (i.e. sodium with fluorine creates sodium fluoride found in toothpaste)

Can still combine with other elements to make new substances.

Lanthanides are used in products such as hybrid cars

Uranium and plutonium are used in nuclear reactors and nuclear bombs

In 1787, French chemist Guyton de Morveau created the first naming system for compounds. His order or rules follow naming the compound by writing the metal element first. 

(i.e. zinc and oxygen forms zinc oxide and sodium and chloride forms sodium chloride)

Since 1920, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) is the governing body responsible the naming of every chemical compound.

Formula identifies:

• Which elements

• How much of each are in the compound

Ex. Table salt

Chemical Name: Sodium chloride

Chemical Formula: NaCl_(s)

Ex. Baking Soda

Chemical Name Sodium bicarbonate/ sodium hydrogen carbonate

Chemical Formula: NaHCO₃_(s)

1. Always put the metal element first (if there is one)

2. If you know the formula, you know the name

3. Coefficients in front of the element indicate the number of molecules 

4. Subscripts indicate the number of atoms of the element

5. After the chemical formula a subscript of either s = solid, g = gas, l = liquid, or aq = aqueous solution

When solid sodium is placed in a container with chlorine gas, the sodium explodes into a bright yellow flamed. As the sodium burns, a white coarse-grained powder is produced which is sodium chloride aka table salt (NaCl_(s)).

This product that is produced, is called an ionic compound.

Ionic compounds are pure substances formed as a result of the attraction between particles of opposite charges called ions. 

How are ions formed?

They either lose or gain an electron. Remember: Elements in pure form, have an equal balance of protons and electrons (aka electrically neutral). The number of protons in the nucleus does not change or else it would be a different element!

Ex. When sodium combines with chlorine to form sodium chloride, it loses an electron to become stable.

There are four main pieces of evidence to look for to know if a chemical change occurred. 

1. Change in color: When bleach is added to the dye on a denim jacket, a noticeable colour change

2. Change in odor: Fireworks give off a smell once it combusts 

3. A formation of a solid (precipitate) or gas: Alka-Seltzer dropped in water will release CO₂(g)

4. Release or absorption of heat energy or light: In the elephant toothpaste experiment heat was released when the yeast reacted with the hydrogen peroxide.

For example: When metallic magnesium is added to an acid solution, bubbling  occurs (formation of a gas) and energy (heat) is released. A chemical change is occuring

Example:

Sr²⁺ (strontium ion), Ag⁺ (silver ion)

1. Chemical name of the metal or positive ion goes first followed by the non-metal or negative ion second.

2. The second ion changes to ide at the end (i.e. NaCl_(s) is sodium chloride)

Polyatomic ions (poly- means “many”) are a group of atoms acting as one.

For example:

1 carbon atom and 3 oxygen atoms form a polyatomic ion called carbonate CO₃^2-

When carbonate CO₃^2- reacts with calcium ions Ca²⁺, it produces calcium carbonate CaCO_3(s) or limestone.

The term molecular compound is used to describe elements that are covalently bonded and to distinguish the compounds from ionic compounds. In general, the elements that combine to form binary molecular compounds are both nonmetals.

Molecule: Group of atoms joined by covalent bonds 

Molecular compound: Pure substance formed when non-metals combine  

For many molecules, the sharing of electrons allows each atom to attain the equivalent  of a valence shell, corresponding to a stable electronic configuration. In organic, covalent bonds are more common than ionic bonds. 

All molecular compounds, can be named using the following rules. 

1. For the first element, start with the element name

2. For the second element, start with the -ide name

3. Use prefixes to show how many atoms of each type there are

Exceptions to the rules:

1. Molecular compounds containing hydrogen, use common names

   1. Sugar - C₁₂H₂₂O_11(s)

   2. Ammonia - NH_3(g)

   3. Water - H₂O_(l) 

If there is only one atom of the first element, “mono” prefix is not used

Prefixes 1-10

1 - mono

2 - di

3 - tri

4 - tetra

5 - penta

6 - hexa

7 - hepta

8 - octa

9 - nona

10 - deca 

The new materials produced by the reaction are called products.

• Tend to gases or liquids

• Made of non-metals

• Made of covalent bonds

• Poor conductors. Tend to be insulators

• low melting and boiling points because the forces between the molecules are weak.

Ionic Compound's Properties:

• Crystalline solids

• Metal and non-metal

• Ionic bonds

• Good conductor in aqueous solution

• High melting points

1. Exchange of energy

   1. endothermic

   2. exothermic

2. A color change

3. Change in state 

   1. Formation of precipitate (a solid that is produced when two solutions are mixed (ionic compounds dissolved in water 

4. Formation of a gas

5. Odor is produced

Hint: When you see the word “exo” think “exit”

For example: When you burn an object in the presence of oxygen, energy in the form of heat is given off. 

So in an exothermic reaction, heat “exits” or is given off. The result? The release of energy

Another example: is when you digest food. Heat is released when your body metabolizes food.

Hint: When you see the word “endo” think “enter”

So in an endothermic reaction, heat “enters” or is taken in. The result? It will cool. 

For example: Ice packs

See image***

The arrow separates the reactants and products The arrow indicates the direction in which the reaction is most likely to occur

Wood + oxygen             carbon dioxide + water + energy

Plus signs (+) separate the reactants from each other and the products from each other. 

The arrow                    separates the reactants and products

The arrow               indicates the direction in which the reaction is mostlikely to occur

Example:

Zinc + copper (II) sulfate →zinc sulfate + copper

Zn_(s) + CuSO_4(aq) → ZnSO_4(aq) + Cu_(s)

Top of picture

They essentially switch the (+) and (-) and usually in water (aq) solution. The reactants and products are usually ionic compounds but can also be acids or bases. 

1. Combustion

2. Corrosion

3. Cellular respiration

Examples:

Combustion: Combustion Engines

Corrosion: Copper

Cellular respiration: Plants

Example: Fire. In burning, wood reacts with oxygen to give off heat and light and produce carbondioxide and water.

The most common example of corrosion is rusting. Rusting occurs when iron reacts with oxygen to form iron oxide. 

Iron + oxygen →iron (II) oxide

Fe_(s) + O_2(g) → FeO_(s)

Cellular respiration occurs when food (in the form of glucose) reacts with oxygen to produce energy, water and carbon dioxide.

Principle of matter is not created or destroyed in a chemical reaction; the mass of the products equals the mass of the reactants.

In a chemical reaction, products are formed when the reactant or reactants undergo a chemical change. They may look different however the total mass always remains the same. 

The Law of Conservation of Mass dates from Antoine Lavoisier’s 1789 discovery that mass is neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions. In other words, the mass of any one element at the beginning of a reaction will equal the mass of that element at the end of the reaction. If we account for all reactants and products in a chemical reaction, the total mass will be the same at any point in time in any closed system. Lavoisier’s finding laid the foundation for modern chemistry and revolutionized science. 

The Law of Conservation of Mass holds true because naturally occurring elements are very stable at the conditions found on the surface of the Earth.

There are three types of thermodynamic systems:

1. Closed system

2. Open System

Insulated System (not discussed in science 9                                                                                                                           but think Thermos’)

When a reaction occurs in an open system, products are allowed to escape into the enviroment therefore it may seem that it doesn’t follow the law of conservation, however it does!

Remember mass cannot be created or destroyed!

The four factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction are:

1. The presence of a catalyst

2. The concentration of the reactants

3. The tempature of the reactants

4. The surface area of the reactants

Ex: chlorine acts as a catalyst promoting the breakdown of ozone. 

• More heat added to the reactants = the faster the reaction. 

• Adding energy in the form of heat increases the rate of collision between reactants                                              

Early knowledge of of them was passed from generation to generation and from culture to culture, often as legends and folklore.

Two annual events are the summer and winter solstice. 

The word “solstice” comes from the Latin sol meaning sun, and stice meaning stop.

Summer Solstice

• In the northern hemisphere (where we live), summer solstice occurs near June 21st

• Marks the longest period of daylight in the year and the start of summer

  
  

Winter Solstice

• Occurs near December 21st

• Marks the shortest day of the year and the start of winter

Their observation of the position and path of the Sun throughout the year was highly accurate.

More than 3500 years ago, a stonehedge in southern England was used to mark the summer and winter solstices. This beautiful work of art was arranged in concentric circles and still stands today!

Another phenomenon honored by early cultures was the equinox. 

The word “equinox” comes from the Latin equi meaning equal, and nox meaning night. 

Vernal (Spring) Equinox

• Occurs around March 21st

  
  

Autumnal (Fall) Equinox

• Occurs around September 22

At the equinox, day and night are of equal length (time).

• Winter

• Spring

• Summer

• Autumn

South:

• Summer

• Autumn

• Winter

• Spring

Ex.

Around 1000 A.D., the Mayans of Central America built an enormous cylinder-shaped tower to celebrate the occurrence of the two equinoxes.

Ancient Egypt

Pyramids were built to align with the seasonal position of certain stars. 

Alberta

2000 years ago, indigenous people of Alberta used large rocks to build medicine circles. Key rocks aligned with the bright stars that rose in the dawn such as Aldebaran, Rigel, and Sirius. 

Seen from Earth, everything in the sky appears to be in motion. The Sun rises and sets, and the Moon, planets, and stars travel across the sky. Even constellations appear to change position throughout the year. 

Models were created to help explain the movement. 

1. Geocentric model proposed by Aristotle

2. Heliocentric model proposed by Nicholas Copernicus in 1530 (current understanding)

• Earth - centered by a series of concentric spheres that represents the paths of the Sun, Moon and planets. 

• 5 planets were known at that time (Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn)

• Aristotle hypothesized that stars stayed in a fixed position attached to the outer sphere called the “celestial sphere.”

• Geocentric model helped forecast phases of the moon.

Concentric spheres: Having a common center, such that two or more spheres, circles, or segments of circles are within one another

• Sun is at the center 

• Earth and other planets revolve in orbits around the Sun.

In the 1600s advancements in technology (via telescope by Galileo) gave evidence of the heliocentric model. 

Additionally, Johannes Kepler realized the orbits of the planets were ellipses and not circles

We currently use the heliocentric model to date.

Ellipses: An oval formed around two foci; the orbital paths of planets traveling around the Sun are ellipses 

Sundials were used for 7000 years to measure the passage of time.

Merkhets 

Invented by Ancient Egyptians to chart astronomical positions and predict the movement of stars

Quadrant

Invented by Egyptian astronomers in 2nd century A.D. Used to measure a star’s height above the horizon

Astrolabe

Arabian astronomers used the astrolabe to chart the star positions

Invented in the 14th century by astronomer Leviben Gurson. Used to measure the angle between the Moon and any given star.

Compared to other distances in the universe, that isn’t very far but……

It would take you 17 years to fly to the Sun on a Boeing 747 while travelling 965 km/hr!

Galileo Galilei is first accredited with the use of the telescope to observe the stars. With the telescope, more detail could be seen on planets, and other things were discovered in the solar system.

Today’s modern telescopes are capable of collecting light that has traveled from distant galaxies. 

Images from the Hubble Space Telescope (launched in 1990), have captured amazing images that Galileo would be in awe. Astronomers believe that what the Hubble Space Telescope is viewing reaches back some 12 billion years.

The new James Webb Space Telescope launched on December 25, 2021. It uses large mirrors to capture images from extreme distances into our galaxy.

Two types of units used when measuring in space are:

1. Astronomical unit

2. Light year

With each of these technological innovations, astronomers made new discoveries and gained more knowledge about what they were seeing.

• A star is a hot, glowing ball of gas (mainly hydrogen and helium) 

• Gives off tremendous light energy

• The colour of stars depends on the surface temperature

  • blue - very hot

  • red - cooler

• Vary in size and density

The number of stars in the universe is in the billions of billions.

Their data showed a pattern in the distribution of star temperature and brightness and created the Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R)diagram. Stars fall into several distinct groupings.

Our Sun can be found in the middle of the main sequence. Our Sun is a very average star in the middle of of its life but in 5 billion years it will become a red giant.

Part of this pattern has been confirmed by the current theory of how stars evolve and change over very long periods of time.

Stars go through a cycle; they are born, they live, and they die. Astronomers estimate that the cycle of a star takes about 10 billion years.

1. All stars are born when clouds and dust are pulled together by gravity to form a nebulae. Nebula is composed of 75% hydrogen, 23% helium, and 2% is oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and silicate dust (some of the interstellar matter came from exploding stars).

Slide 2

~duplicate part~

2. Parts of the nebula collapse which causes the material to clump into a swirling ball called a protostar. The interior of the protostar gets hot as hydrogen gas is changed into helium by fusion. 

   
   

   At this point a star is born.

Slide 3

Depending on the mass of the star that was formed the star will either be Sun-like (or low-mass) or massive.

3. When the protostar is converting hydrogen to helium, it is said to be in “main sequence.” It is stable in that gravity is being counteracted by the energy of fusion.

(LOWER PART OF IMAGE)

Slide 4

As gravity causes the star to contract, further nuclear reactions occur, leading to expansion of the outer layers.

4. As the helium core is heated, the layers around it expand to a red giant(if it is a sun-like) or a red supergiant star (if it is a massive star).

Slide 5

The final stage in a star’s life occurs when the fusion reaction stops. 

5. When the fuel is used up the and fusion stops in a Sun-like star, gravity causes the star to shrink in size into a dwarf star. First a white dwarf and eventually the star will fade complete until it is a cold, black dwarf.  

Slide 6

~duplicate part~

6. When the fuel is used up the and fusion stops in a massive star, gravity causes the star’s core to collapse and sends an outgoing shock wave. 

(UPPER PART OF IMAGE)

This shock wave causes the outer part to explode into a supernova.

Slide 7

~duplicate part~

7. If the star is not destroyed, the core is left as a neutron star or a black hole. 

Astronomers only know about the existence of black holes because of how material near the hole become very hot and bright.

Vocab:

Nebulae: vast clouds of gas and dust in space, were stars form; nebula (singular)

Protostar: a contracting mass of gas in the first stage of a star’s formation

Sun-like star: smaller of the two main types of stars that can form

Massive star: larger of the two main types of stars that can form

Red giant: The stage in the life cycle of a Sun-like star during which the star increases in size and becomes very bright

Red supergiant: The stage in the life cycle of a massive star during which the star increases in size and becomes very bright

White dwarf: One of the latter stages in the life cycles of the Sun-like star during which the star collapses; white dwarfs are hot but very faint

Black dwarf: the final phase in the life cycles of a Sun-like star

Supernova: an enormous explosion that marks the death of a massive star

Neutron star: a small, super-dense remnant of a supernova

Black hole: a super-dense remnant of a supernova; an object around which gravity is so intense that even light cannot escape

Galaxies are classified into three types:

1. Spiral - appears to have one curved arm radiating from a central core nucleus

2. Elliptical - appears to have the shape of an egg and is made up of mostly old stars

3. Irregular - appears to have no regular shape and consists of a mix of old and new stars

We live in a spiral galaxy called the Milky Way. The Milky Way is just one of billions upon billions of galaxies that exist in the universe. 

The protoplanet hypothesis is a model to explain the birth of solar systems. 

There are three steps:

1. A cloud of gas and dust in space begins swirling around

2. Most of the material (more than 90%) accumulates in the centre, forming the sun

The remaining material accumulates in smallerclumps circling the centre. These form the planets

My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nutella

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune

Terrestrial Planets:

Mercury - Closest to the sun

Venus - Hottest planet in the solar system

Earth - Our home planet

Mars - Farthest terrestrial planets

Jovian Planets:

Jupiter - Biggest planet

Saturn - Ringed planet

Uranus - 2nd Farthest planet

Neptune - Farthest Planet from the sun

Roughly 5 billion years old

Burning ball of hydrogen and helium

Pressure causes nuclear fusion (reaction that changes hydrogen into helium)

Surface temperature is roughly 5500

Internal temperature is roughly 15 000 000

Dark spots found around the middle of the sun are linked to stormy weather on Earth

Solar wind is affected by solar flares and travels 400 km/s

It takes 27 Earth days for the sun to rotate on axis

Sun radiates energy as light, ultraviolet, and infrared radiation

These four have a few things in common:

1. Multiple moons

2. No solid surface

3. Support ring systems

4. Immense in size

5. Located in size from the Sun

   
   

They can be further divided into two subcategories:

Gas Giants: Jupiter and Saturn

• Predominantly made of helium and hydrogen

  
  

Ice Giants: Uranus and Neptune 

• Contain rock, ice, and liquid mixture of water, methane, and ammonia

These four have a few things in common:

Made of rocky material

Surfaces are solid

Don’t have rings

Very few moons

Relatively small

• Vary in size and shape

4000 asteroids have been identified

• Consists of a mixture of ice and dust

• Moves in an elliptical path around the Sun. 

• As the comet approaches the Sun, the heat vaporizes the gases and forms a trailing tail.

Because the tail is blown away by the solar winds, it faces away from the Sun

• When meteoroid leaves its orbiting path and enters the Earth’s atmosphere

• Because of the heat created by friction, as a meteor passes through the air it usually burns up and disintegrates. 

• This is referred to as a “shooting star” or “meteor shower”

Meteoroid

• Smaller rocky material flying in the asteroid belt or elsewhere in space

  
  

Meteorite

• If a meteor survives and strikes Earth is becomes a meteorite

• Made of an iron material and is magnetic

• Several meteorites have been found in Alberta

A position in space is determined using two axis: horizontal and vertical:

1. Measurement along the horizontal axis is called the azimuth.

2. Measurement along the vertical axis is referred to as the altitude.

An astrolabe is simply an upside-down protractor with a weighted string hanging from the center and a sighting tube along its straight edge. 

• It measures, the altitude of celestial bodies. 

Planets are never featured in constellations because they do not maintain fixed positions relative to other planets or stars. 

Within a few days or weeks, you can see a planet change its position against the background of the stars. 

The path in the sky along which the Sun appears to move is called the ecliptic. 

Ecliptic: The apparent path of the Sun and planets

through the stars during the year, as viewed from Earth

1AU = 149 599 000 km = the average distance from the centre of the Sun to the centre of Earth. 

Since the Sun is in the centre of the solar system, we use this to describe the positions of planets.

1 Light-year = the distance light travels in 1 year. It is not a measurement of time but distance

300 000 km/s x 31 536 000 s/year = 9.5 trillion km.

1. To go fast enough to achieve orbit around Earth or break free of Earth’s gravity and travel to other planets

2. To keep equipment operating in the extreme environment of space

3. To transport people out and back safely

The first step in space exploration has been figuring a way to get off the planet. It has been determined that the speed a spacecraft needs to reach at least 28 000 km/hr to overcome the force of gravity pulling the ship back to Earth!

Past Contributors (just a small glimpse):

• 400BC: Archytas (Greek mathematician) used escaping steam to propel a model pigeon suspended along wires. The bird used the action-reaction principle, which was not stated as a scientific law until the 17th century. It was the first device to successfully employ the principles essential to rocket flight.

• It is unclear when the first true rockets appeared

• 1st Century AD: the Chinese used gunpowder to make rocket-propelled arrows for battle

16th Century AD: First rocket assisted flight (unsuccessful). See infoBit pg. 409 for more info

The first step in space exploration has been figuring a way to get off the planet.

Past Contributors:

• October 4, 1957

• Solviet Union was the first country to launch an artificial satellite called Sputnik

• A month after Sputnik, they launched a second space capsule carrying a dog named Laika. 

This was the firsttime any living creature had been sent into space.

Rockets use fuel under pressure to provide the thrust energy required to propel the spaceship in an opposite direction. 

This is similar to releasing a blown up balloon. Air coming out the back provides the energy to thrust the balloon forward.

Recall: What law (Grade 8) states that fluid in an enclosed container, pressure is exerted equally in all directions?

There are three basic parts to a rocket:

1. Structural and mechanical component: engine, storage tanks, and fins

2. fuel: mixture of oxygen, hydrogen, and gasoline. The mixture is ignited in a combustion chamber, causing the gases to expand and leave as exhaust. 

   1. Currently: liquid hydrogen is the current fuel used. Hydrogen is light (lowest molecular weight and burns with extreme intensity. In combination with an oxidizer such as liquid oxygen, creates a very efficient propellant and it’s eco friendly!

payload: materials needed for the flight such as food, water, and astronauts

Ion Drive Engine

• Uses electrically charged xenon gas for fuel

• less expensive than chemical fuel

• Downfall: the thrust generated is 10 000 times less than an chemical engine

Currently: ion thrusters are now being used to keep over 100 geosynchronous Earth orbit communication satellites in their desired location and 3 NSTAR ion thrusters are enabling the Dawn spacecraft (launched in 2007) to travel deep into our solar system. 

Solar Sail

Uses the suns light for propulsion

The Sun emits electromagnetic energy in the form of photons

When the photons hit the sail, the energy transmitted causes the spacecraft to move

Some scientists estimate that a spacecraft powered by solar sails could travel about 5 times as fast as a current spacecraft.

Currently: The solar sails were intended to be launched in 2015 but the project ended in 2014 before being sent.

1. Shuttle

2. Space Probes

3. Space Stations

• The space shuttle can be used over and over again 

Canada´s contribution to the shuttle program was the invention of the robotic arm, Canadarm.

Contains instrumentation for carrying out robotic exploration.

• Powered by solar energy

• Designed to be self-sustaining

• When completed, it will have the living and working space of 3 average-sized Canadian homes and facilities for recycling waste water, producing oxygen, and removing carbon dioxide, dust, and microorganism from the air. 

• As of 2022, two stations are orbiting Earth with life support system in place and fully operational

• 
  

  • International Space Station (launched November 1998)

  • Tiangong Space Station (launch April 2021)

People travelling and working in space need an environment that will help them survive.

We will look at the following:

• Evironmental hazards

• Psychological challenges to confined livings

• The body and microgravity

• The space suit

• Home in space

Gravity is the force of attraction between masses. 

• Gravity on Earth gives us our feeling of weight.

• Microgravity  is the condition which the gravitational forces that act on mass are greatly reduced.

• For example: A person would only weigh ⅓ on Mars as they would on Earth. In space, people are almost completely weightless as well as the spacecraft. 

  
  

Weightlessness causes the body to undergo many changes. 

• With less pressure bones expand, lose calcium and become brittle

• Blood pressure drops

• Muscles weaken (atrophy) 

• Visual depth perception is affected

• Clean Water

• Breathable air and removing carbon dioxide

• Comfortable temperatures

• Air pressure, temperature, and air moisture

• Filtering micro-organisms and dust from the air

• Power source to provide energy

Natural satellites: any small body that orbits a larger body 

Artificial satellites: are technological devices that are built and launched or transported into space. There, they are released to orbit around Earth. Satellites can be classified by their function since they are launched into space to do a specific job and there are currently more than 4500 active satellites in orbit. Satellites serve several purposes:

• Surveying land

• Telecommunicating 

• Tracking weather

• Predict magnetic storms, and 

• Tracking objects (GPS)

Today, satellites use digital systems that result in clearer transmissions and allow for a great number of users at any one time. 

Observation and research satellites can also:

• Take photographs

• Follow ships at sea

• Monitor soil quality

• Track forest fires

• Report on evironmental change 

• Search for natural resources

Remote sensing uses imaging devices in the satellite to make observations of the Earth’s surface and send the information back. 

• Photographs taken by cameras

• Data collected from sensing heat and other invisible energy waves

• Provide information on 

  
  

  - The condition of the environment

  - Natural resources

  - Effects on urbanization

GPS is everywhere. You can find GPS systems in your car, your smartphone, and your watch. GPS helps you get where you are going, from point A to point B.

There are five main uses of GPS:

1. Location - determining a position

2. Navigation - getting from one location to another

3. Tracking - monitoring object or personal movement

4. Mapping - Creating maps of the world

5. Timing - Making it possible to take precise time measurements

The satellite system consists of a constellation of 24 satellites in 6 Earth-centered orbital planes, each with 4 satellites, orbiting at 20, 000 km above Earth and travelling at a speed of 14, 000 km/h.

While we only need 3 satellites to produce a location on Earth’s surface, a 4th satellite is often used to validate the information from the other three. The fourth satellite also moves us into the third dimension and allows us to calculate the altitude of the device. 

GPS works through a technique called trilateration. 

1. Radio signals from the satellites are picked up by a hand-held reciever (smartphone)

2. Signals are translated by a computer in the receiver

3. Digital shows shows the position in relation to the satellites

Geostationary orbit (GEO): is roughly 35 786 km altitude and remains in a fixed position over Earth. Satellites in GEO cover a large range of Earth so as few as three equally-spaced satellites can provide near global coverage. This is because when a satellite is this far from Earth, it can cover large sections at once. 

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO): Orbit distance ranges and are anywhere between LEO and GEO. These also do not have a fixed orbit like leo. MEO is used for navigation satellites  

Low Earth Orbit (LEO): can range in altitude of 160 km to 1000 km above Earth. This orbit is most commonly used for satelliteimaging but less useful as telecommunication

unless a constellation of satellites are used for coverage.

LEO satellites travel at a speed of 7.8 km/s and takes about 90 minutes to circle Earth. The ISS is also in LEO and travels around Earth about 16 times per day.

Uses several light weight segments to build one large mirror.

But objects in space also emit other forms of electromagnetic energy that is invisible to the eye.

electromagnetic energy: Forms of radiated energy that travel at the speed of light, although they have different wavelengths and frequencies than light

• Travels at the speed of light (300 000 km/s)

• wavelengths: is a measurement of the distance from one point on a wave (such as the crest) to the same point on the next wave. 

• Frequency: is the number of waves that pass a single point in one second

Radio: Radio waves are emitted by stars and gases in space

Microwave: Used by astronomers to learn about the structure of nearby galaxies 

infrared: Night vision goggles pick up the infrared light emitted by our skin and objects with heat. In space, infrared light helps map the dust between stars. 

visible: Our eyes detect visible light. Fireflies, light bulbs, and stars all emit visible light. 

Ultraviolet: Emitted by the Sun and are the reason skin tans and burns. “Hot” objects in space emit UV radiation as well

X-ray: Hot gases in the Universe emit X-rays

Gamma Ray: Doctors use gamma-ray imaging to see inside your body. The biggest gamma-ray generator of all is the Universe. 

• Typically made of metal mesh

• shape resembles a satellite dish

• Curved inward, and is like an antenna that intercepts and focusses radio waves

Receivers receives the radio waves and transforms them into an electrical signal that is sent to a computer to be interpreted

Advantages of radio telescopes:

• Not affected by weather

• Can be detected during the day and at night

• Not distorted by clouds, pollution or the atmosphere

Focusing the radio telescopes in areas of space that appear empty, has led to a better understanding the composition and distribution of matter in space. 

Discoveries:

• Neutral hydrogen (a large component of matter in space) emits no light but emits specific wavelength in the EM spectrum. 

• Astronomers have been able to map the distortion of neutral hydrogen in the milkt way galaxy

Learned that the lshape of our galaxy is a spiral.

1 micrometer (µm) = 1 millionth of a metre (1.0 x 10^-6 meters)

Some animals such as bees, can see parts of the electromagnetic spectrum that we cannot see (such as ultraviolet light or infrared): the world does not appear to them as to us

• The greater the distance between the radio telescopes = more accurate measurements of positions

Accuracy can increase when more telescopes are arranged in groups called arrays.

Telescopes allow us to see farther and more distant objects in detail that cannot be detected by the unaided eye. 

Recall: Galileo was the first person to use a telescope to observe the night sky. 

• Optical telescopes are “light collectors”

• A series of lenses and mirrors gather and focus the light from stars so we can see it. 

• The larger the surface area of the lenses or mirrors, the great the ability to see the light of objects really far away.

Refracting telescope was the first telescope ever built (thanks Galileo).

• Uses two lenses to gather and focus starlight (bends the light)

• Disadvantage: The lenses cannot be built too large or else the lens fails.

• Uses mirrors to gather and focus the light from distant objects. 

• A primary mirror gathers light from the object, while a secondary mirror focuses the image to the eyepiece. 

• Can be built larger than refracting telescopes and capture images further away

Reflecting telescopes can also be made from liquid! Usually mercury. Thanks to Sr. Issac Newton, we learned that a liquid spinning at a certain speed can produce the smooth shape needed to reflect the objects light to a focal point. 

Disadvantage: The mirror cannot be angled so the telescope can only point up. 

A “newer” innovation for optical reflecting telescopes is to use segmented mirrors. 

• Uses several light weight segments to build one large mirror

Hubble Space Telescope was launched in 1990 to offer solutions to these problems.

Astronomers using the Hubble Space Telescope have discovered galaxies in parts of space were Earth-based telescopes see nothing by blackness. 

• The 18 mirrors are beryllium coated with gold 

• Has a sun shield to protect the telescope from the sun

• Utilizes infrared to capture images 

• The mission goals of JWST

  • Search for the first galaxies or luminous objects formed after the Big Bang

  • Determine how galaxies evolved from their formation of planetary systems

  • Observe the formation of stars from the first stages to the formation of planetary systems

  • Measure the physical and chemical properties of planetary systems, including our own Solar System, and investigate the potential for life in those systems. 

Space probes are:

• Unmanned satellites OR

• Remote-controlled “landers”

  • Can put equipment on or close to planets

Space probes have been used for:

• Remote sensing on Mercury and Jupiter

• Sample soil on Mars

• Land on Venus

• Study the nature of Saturn’s rings

Each element has a unique absorption spectrum. Each star’s spectrum is like a “fingerprint” that identifies the elements within it!

Discoveries:

• Neutral hydrogen (a large component of matter in space) emits no light but emits specific wavelength in the EM spectrum. 

• Astronomers have been able to map the distribution of neutral hydrogen in the Milky Way galaxy

• Learned that the shape of our galaxy is a spiral.

When the spectroscope comes into contact with white light, it splits, or diffracts, the light into all of its colours. This causes each of the coloured beams to point in a different direction, allowing you to view each colour as a single narrow band. This band is often viewed as a dark link called the absorption line. 

The dark lines, or absorption lines, we see from the spectroscope can be compared to known atomic spectrums of elements. 

By carefully examining the spectra from stars, scientists are able to determine EXACTLY what chemicals the star is made of! 

BLUE SHIFT TOWARD

The spectrum of a star moving away from Earth shows the dark lines moving to the red end of the spectrum as the wavelengths stretch out

RED SHIFT AWAY

The amount of the shift shows us the speed of the star relative to the Earth. 

Triangulation: A method of indirectly measuring distance by creating an imaginary triangle between an observer and an object whose distance aways is to be estimated 

Parallax: The apparent shift in position of a nearby object against a distant background when the object is viewed from two different positions  

When the spectroscope comes into contact with white light, it splits, or diffracts, the light into all of its colours. This causes each of the coloured beams to point in a different direction, allowing you to view each colour as a single narrow band. This band is often view as a dark link called the absorption line. 

The dark lines, or absorption lines, we see from the spectroscope can be compared to known atomic spectrums of elements. 

To measure a distance indirectly, you must know:

1. The length of one side (the baseline)

2. The size of the two angles

Must need to know a minimum of two angles to measure the distance.

The longer the baseline, the more accurate the results, therefore measurements must be made 6 months apart.

• Solar radiation 

• Possible collision with comets and asteroids

By understanding the dangers we can develop technologies to overcome them. 

Unforeseen danger and accidents can happen which may result in loss of human life like Apollo 1, and the Challenger.

In 1967, the three-member crew died during a training exercise when fire broke out on the spaceship. 

Challenger

In 1986, the space shuttle exploded shortly after take-off, killing all seven astronauts on board.

Apollo 11
Nothing can be taken for granted during the preparation for a manned or unmanned space flight like ensuring there is enough fuel.  The astronauts only had one chance to land on the moon or they wouldn’t have had enough fuel to get back to Earth!

• In space:

• Floating debris

• Meteoroids

• Radiation 

  • I.e. Huge blast of electrically charged particles from the Sun can burn up electronic circuits in satellites

  • This amount of radiation kills cells in vital organs and damages bone marrow

  • NASA monitors the solar flares and warns astronauts. They are protected by the polyethylene shielding that absorbs the radiation. 

  • Cosmic radiation

  • Comes from the Milky Way and other galaxies

  • Causes damage to human cells

Astronauts on the ISS receive 20 times the normal amount of radiation than Earthlings each year!

• Returning to Earth:

  • The re-entry path must be perfect

    • Too shallow an angle: the craft can bounce off the atmosphere and back into outer space

    • Too steep an angle: the craft can move too quickly through the atmosphere and burn up

• Paint

• Bolt

• Dead satellites

• Lost antennas

• Tools from past shuttle flights

• Even a camera from an astronaut! 

If the space junk is just above the outer reaches of Earth’s atmosphere, it can stay in orbit for thousands of years!!!!

Since 1957, there have been over 4000 missions (manned and unmanned). In 2020 alone, there was a total of 104 successful spaceflights. 

But each of these leaves debris:

• Debris travels 20,000 km/h. 

• Even the smallest debris called micrometeorites can be dangerous

• Most space junk will burn up if it passes Earth’s atmosphere but remains a threat to anyone or anything traveling in space.

• Space junk could make their way back to Earth’s surface.

January 1978: Nuclear-powered Soviet satellite crashed into the Great Slave Lake

• The satellite disintegrated upon entry

• Caused radioactive debris to shower over 124 000 km

  
  

Effect:

• No lives lost

• Clean-up took almost 8 months

• Cost of clean up was 15 million dollars!

• Originally designed by Spar Aerospace

• Debut in 1981, on the U.S. space shuttle "Columbia"

• Manipulated by remote control

• Function:

  • Launching and retrieving satellites

  • Fix optical apparatus on the Hubble Space Telescope

  • Put together modules of the ISS

• The arm can bend around corners

• Grasp objects with computer-controlled fingers

• Move around the outside of the ISS, crawling like a caterpillar.

• Works independently or with Dextre

Many people use an extract made from the purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea) to help stimulate their immune system. Echinacea is traditional medicine in North America

Absorb the oxygen and use it to release energy  through cellular respiration .

• Even though these substances are produced naturally, they can be harmful to living things.

• The effects of these gases depend on the amount of gas, the wind patterns that disperse the gases, and the height of the emissions in the atmosphere.  

• Sulfur dioxide affects the breathing system of animals including humans. 

  • 6 ppm can affect the nose and throat

  • 20 ppm can irritate the eyes

  • Reacts with water in the atmosphere to form acid

The repeating changes of these elements and water as they move through ecosystems is called a cycle .

20.9% - Oxygen

0.9% - Argon Gas

0.17% - Other Gases

0.03% - Carbon Dioxide

Next slide

• Bacteria in the soil are located in the roots nodules  of plants.

• Bacteria separate the two nitrogen that form nitrogen gas  (free  nitrogen N₂). 

• Once separated, the nitrogen atoms can form compounds with other elements such as hydrogen and oxygen 

Lightning also converts nitrogen in the air to nitrogen compounds that plants can use.

It can be removed from the local environment in different ways. 

• Conversion to free nitrogen by bacteria 

• Water carry dissolved nitrogen compounds away or deep into the soil so they are unavailable to plants 

• Lost in an area when plants are harvested. 

If soil lacks nitrogen, farmers plant nitrogen-fixing plants (clover or alfalfa) or add fertilizers to increase the amount of nitrogen.

For example, potassium is essential to plant growth. If soil is low in potassium, plants will not grow enough and will need a fertilizer.

Fertilizers are described by the major nutrient elements they contain: 

nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. 

The three numbers 15-30-15  on the label indicate that this fertilizer contains 

• 15% nitrogen compounds

• 30% phosphorus compounds 

• 15% potassium compounds

Some fertilizers have a fourth number and the letter “S ” on the label to indicate that they contain sulfur as a major ingredient.

OTHER NOTES:

• Can be made from natural or synthetic sources

• Doesn’t matter whether a fertilizer comes from a natural or a synthetic source—too much can damage organisms or damage the crop

• Can damage ecosystems when they ___________ nearby ___________ ___________ (incomplete)

• Herbicides kill or control weeds. 

• Insecticides kill or control insects. 

• Fungicides kill fungi.

• Sewage moves through pipes into a septic tank in rural areas or to a sewage treatment plant in towns and cities. 

  
  

• A septic tank is an underground container where bacteria break down the organic materials before they are moved out to the soil. 

Where The Sewage Goes:

• A sewage treatment plant treats wastes from homes, businesses, industries, and institutions. It may also treat water from street drains. 

• Treated wastewater or effluent is released into rivers or lakes. 

• It may contain nitrogen and phosphorus from the breakdown of sewage during treatment.

Water from storm sewers contains chemicals washed off the street, such as oil or other fluids that have leaked from vehicles, and salt from snow-clearing operations.

• They are called hydrocarbons because they are mainly made up of the elements hydrogen and carbon. 

• They may also contain oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur and traces of other elements such as mercury and lead

CH4 - methane 

C3H8 - propane 

C4H10 - butane

hydrocarbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy 

The combustion of fossil fuels releases pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and traces of mercury and lead into the air.

Equations of Methane Gas and Propane

CH4(g) + 2O2(g)       →     CO2(g)     + 2H2O(g)

methane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water vapor + energy

C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g)           + 4H2O(g) 

propane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water vapor + energy

Methane, propane, and butane are all derived from natural gas and are used primarily for heating. Ethane is used in plastics such as polyethylene.

Natural gas that contains hydrogen sulfide is called “sour” gas. 

If no hydrogen sulfide is present, the gas is considered “sweet” gas.

• Sweet natural gas is a type of natural gas obtaining trace amounts of hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide

• Properties

  • Non-corrosive

  • less acidic

  • requires less refining and easy to transport and handle

Sour Natural Gas

• Sour natural gas is a type of natural gas containing large amounts of hydrogen sulfide

• Properties

  • Corrosive

  • can damage piping due to sulfide stress cracking process

  • requires more refining and more difficult to handle

Acid

• An acid is a substance that dissolves in water and increases the hydrogen (h+) ion concentration of the acid solution

• The strength of an acid is a measure of the free hydrogen ions in the solution and is expressed as pH

• The pH number indicates its acidity

• Any number below 7

Basic

• A basic solution has more hydroxyl (OH^-) ions than hydrogen ions

• A base is a compound that dissolves in water to form a solution with a pH higher than 7

Neutral

• Neither an acid or a base

• The difference between one number to the next on the pH scale represents a 10-fold difference.

  • I.e. A pH of 3 is more acidic than a pH of 4

  • I.e. A pH of 9 is more basic than a pH of 8

• A probe attached to a meter

• Test the fluid by submerging the tip of the probe and the meter will indicate the fluid’s pH

Universal Indicator

• A mixture of indicators that change color  over a wide pH range

• The pH of a clear fluid can be identified after several have been added to the fluid

• Need to use a color to compare

Red & Blue Litmus Paper

Neutral Reactions

• Neutral (both remain)

  • Red Litmus remains Red

  • Blue Litmus remains Blue

    
    

• Acid Reactions (blue changes)

  • Red Litmus remains Red

  • Blue Litmus turns Red

    
    

• Base Reactions (red changes)

  • Red Litmus turns Blue

  • Blue Litmus remains BLue

Universal pH Strip'

• Strips that when placed in the solution will turn the color associated to the pH of the solution

HCl_(aq) + NaOH_(aq)                 NaCl_(s) + H₂O_(l)

acid+ base                 salt+ water

Many different products aid in the neutralization of acids and bases. They can be as simple as a bag of citric acid or sodium sesquicarbonate, or as complex as a solidifier and neutralizer combined.

The acid and base react during neutralization, forming water and salt. If the acid and base are both very strong (such as concentrated hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide), a violent reaction will occur. That’s why most neutralizers are very weak: to slow the reaction. Even with neutralization products, heat and gas will often evolve. Take proper precautions as recommended by the neutralizer’s manufacturer.

• Ordinary water is naturally slightly acidic

• Raindrops dissolve carbon dioxide gas to form a very weak carbonic acid (pH 5.6)

• In central Canada, acid rain can have a pH as low as 3. 

Acidic lake are sometimes treated with limestone (calcium hydroxide) to neutralize

Ca(OH)_2(aq) + H₂SO_4(aq)                 CaSO_4(s) + 2H₂O_(l)

Calcium hydroxide + sulfuric acid          calcium sulfate + water

• Three major elements - carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen in their molecular structure

• Carbon atom is always to the hydrogen atom and in most cases, the oxygen atom too. 

• Sometimes these elements are attached to minor elements such as nitrogen, magnesium, or sulfur.

  • I.e. nitrogen is bonded to hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen to produce amino acids (NH₂CH₂COOH). Amino acids are building blocks of protein and are required fpr growth and repair

Examples of organic compounds: glucose, sugar, and protein and fat.

Examples of inorganic compounds: water, potassium, salt, oxygen, gas, baking soda, and the mineral quartz.

Contain carbon

Contain other elements

Found in organisms

BOTH:

Contained in living things

Chemical compounds

Made of a combination of elements

INORGANIC:

Do not usually contain carbon

• Basis of chlorophyll

• Leaf and stem growth

• Composition of proteins and nucleic acids found in all cells

• Growth and repair of tissues

Phosphorus

• Root and flower growth

• Cellular respiration and photosynthesis

• Composition of bones, teeth, and DNA

Potassium

• Stimulation of early growth

• Starch and protein production and sugar movement

• Muscle contraction and nerve impulses

Magnesium

• Composition of chlorophyll 

• Photosynthesis

• Composition of bones and teeth

Calcium

• Cell wall structure

• Cell division

• Composition of bones and teeth

• Blood clotting

• Muscle and nerve function

Sulfur

• Production of fruits and grains

• Protein synthesis

• Important role in cell growth and development

  • Low carb intake: can lead to ketosis, which creates an acidity of the blood and creates several negative health effects including; dizziness, confusion, nausea, and a loss of body water and minerals

  • Excessive consumption: particularly simple starches and sugars, can lead to obesity and high blood glucose levels