Gustave Courbet painted “The Stonebreakers” in 1849, one year after the publication of the Communist Manifesto.  The paining is an example of Realism. It depicts two laborers clearing rocks for a road to be built.  The theme of the painting is the plight of the laborers and the laboring class. The workers are surrounded by rocks and hills in the paining. This represents the trap that the working class is held in. It is a continuation in mainstream thought that was beginning to focus on troubles of the working class. This theme is especially prevalent in communist works.

Herbert Spencer was an English philospher, biologist, sociologist, and prominent classical liberal political theorist. He was born in 1820 in Derby, England and died in1903. He was best known for his concept Social Darwinism. This philosophy applies Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution and “survival of the fittest” to sociology. It states that the poor and weak in a society are in that position due to the natural process of “natural selection”. He believed that the best way for society to evolve and strengthen itself is for these people to be left behind. He believes that it is acceptable and natural for the strong to take advantage and exploit the weak. He applied his social theory to justify European imperialism around the globe. He also argued for governments not to intervene in the struggles of the weak and downtrodden in society because he sees this intervention as the disruption of the natural cycle of “survival of the fittest.” His ideas were a continuation of mainstream thought that placed an increase focus on the social sciences. Mainstream thought was also looking for justifications of imperialism and societal inequality. They were able to find these justifications in Spencer’s ideas. In his Essay titled Social Statics, Spencer states, “The development of the higher creation is a progress towards a form of being, capable of a happiness undiminished by these drawbacks. It is in the human race that the consummation is to be accomplished. Civilization is the last stage of its accomplishment. It seems hard that widows and orphans should be left to struggle for life or death. Nevertheless, when regarded not separately but in connexion with the interests of universal humanity, these harsh fatalities are seen to be full of beneficence-- the same beneficence which brings to early graves the children of diseased parents, and singles out the intemperate and the debilitated as the victims of an epidemic. “This excerpt summarizes Spencer’s ideology. He views society as an ever-evolving body whose success depends on the natural process of “survivalof the fittest.” He believes that the harsh fatalities of the weak are beneficial to overall social success and progress.

Alexander2 was born in 1818 in Moscow, Russia. He was assassinated in 1881 in St. Petersburg. He reigned over Russia as emperor and autocrat of all Russians from 1855-1881. His most significant accomplishment is the emancipation of serfs throughout all of Russia. His other reforms include the reorganization of the military, the simplification of the Russian code of law, and the formation of a new arm of Russian bureaucracy aimed at local self-government. These changes came largely as a result of Russia’s crushing defeat in the Crimean War. Alexander strived to accomplish western reforms to empower Russia and to compete with other European nations. Alexander’s scope of influence rests largely on a national scale because he was ruler of Russia. His influence also stretches to other parts of Europe because Russia interacted with other countries. I chose Alexander 2 because his western reforms took place within the small time period which encompassed his rule. Russia had been a traditional and nonindustrial force before Alexander. He was able to modernize and industrialize Russia through his western reforms. He saved Russia from falling very far behind the rest of Europe. His reforms reflect western policy as a whole during the era.

This quote accurately portrays the imperialist attitudes of many European countries during the age of nationalism. King Leopold 2 of Belgium gave this quote to reference all the territories of Belgium. King Leopold was known for his involvement in the African Congo. He believed that non-appropriated land all around the world was available to European control and that they should be used for Belgium’s success. He notes the new technologies that make global imperialism possible such as steam power and electricity. The imperialist mindset believes that all the lands available on the surface of the globe are open for European occupation. They believe that these lands, people, and resources should be used for European operations to strengthen their empires.

Anti-Semitism had long existed in Europe but it reemerged in a new form. Jews gradually gained their civil rights in Europe beginning in France in 1791. The process in which they gained their rights was slow and uneven. A turning point occurred in 1848 when German Jews were given full right during the Frankfurt Assembly. Liberals in Austria, Italy, and Prussia pressed for legal equality as well following this success. The success lasted throughout decades of conservative reactionary opposition. The process of emancipation presented Jews with challenges and opportunities. The new form of anti-Semitism built on previous forms and became part of a reaction against liberalism and its economic and political policies. It whipped up resentment against Jewish achievement and "financial control." Some said that the race posed a biological threat to the German people. Anti-Semitic beliefs were especially popular among conservatives, extremists, and nationalists. It was also popular among those who saw the Jewish people as an economic threat in the form of competition. Anti-Semitism was most oppressive in eastern Europe. In Russia, and many other places, the Jews were used as a scapegoat for the nation's problems and a means to divert attention from political leaders. The scope of this change was international. Leaders were able to benefit from this change because the Jews became a scapegoat for problems they weren't properly handling. They were able to exploit anti-Semitism to increase their power and influence. The catalyst for this change was the rise of nationalism and the age of mass politics. The Jews were a minority and did little in attempt to assimilate into European society. Nationalists wanted a common national identity and Jews refused to conform to it. This made them an easy target for attacks.

"EXCERPT FROM HERBERT SPENCER, SOCIAL STATICS (1851)." . N.p.. Web. 6 Mar 2013. <http://personal.ashland.edu/~jmoser1/spencer.htm>.

"The Stonebreakers - Smarthistory." Smarthistory. Khan Academy. Web. 6 Mar 2013. <http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/the-stonebreakers.html>.

"Alexander 2 Biography." Notable Biographies. N.p.. Web. 6 Mar 2013. <http://www.notablebiographies.com/A-An/Alexander-II.html>.