Christianity entered a “new phase” (Stokstad and Cothren 223) when “Constantine issued the Edict of Milan in 313" (223), giving all people in the Roman Empire freedom to worship (223). St. Jerome, the papal secretary, translated the Greek and Hebrew version of the Bible into Latin (223). As the Christian Community developed, there were “special architectural needs” (223). The need for a place for the whole community to worship, for baptisteries and martyrs’ shrines increased (223). Began with the age of Constantine, pagan basilica was the model of churches, and tombs were the model for baptisteries and martyrs’ shrines (223).  

  

      The church of Santa Sabina in Rome was constructed between 422 and 432 by Bishop Peter of Illyria, replacing Old St. Peter’s Church (Stokstad and Cothren 223). It is a “traditional Roman basilica converted from civic function to sacred place” (“Imperial Christian Art” Video 2:41-2:48). It has the basic elements of Early Christian Basilica (223). First, "a nave lit by clerestory windows" (223) which is good for ceremonial procession (“Imperial Christian Art” Video 2:50-2:52). Second, side aisles, and third, ended in a rounded apse (223). The exterior of the church is brick while the interior has marble veneer, 24 “fluted marble columns” (224), with a “Corinthian capitals reused from a second-century pagan building” (224). The columns support round arches and create a nave arcade (224). These characteristics of a longitudinal plan is similar to Old St. Peter’s Church in Rome which was built in 320-327 (“Imperial Christian Art” Video 3:12). Old St. Peter’s has the following characteristics: a forecourt leading to an atrium followed by an entrance porch then a narthex (223). Through portals, (one central and 2 on the side) comes the nave with columns separate aisles on either side and windows (clerestory) (223). Then a transept and an apse which is semi-circular, where an altar is located on a platform. Last a choir is seen (between transept and apse which is an additional space) (223).  

      Santa Sabina is important because it is an example of an early Christian church with the traditional longitudinal floor plan. The contrast of the exterior, being brick , and the interior, being marble, shows the humility of Jesus and the glory of going to heaven.  It also reminds people that being wealthy does not need to be shown on the outside.  I think it is a fine example of an old church and old Christian beliefs. 
     Besides longitudinal buildings, there are central-plan buildings.  Santa Costanza is an example. 

  

      It is important because it is one of the “earliest surviving central-plan Christian buildings” (Stokstad and Cothren 224). It serves as the “mausoleum of Constantina, daughter of Constantine” (224). Built before 350, near Rome, it was “consecrated as a church in 1256” (224). It was “dedicated to Santa Costanza” (224).  

  

      As a central plan building, it has a “tall rotunda” (Stokstad and Cothren 224) and a narthex, encircled by an ambulatory (224). Then there is “arcade and dome” (224) supported by “paired columns with composite capitals” (224). Originally, the interiors were all covered with mosaics and veneer of marble (224).  

  

      The mosaic which is still surviving today in the ambulatory vault shows images of catacombs (Stokstad and Cothren 224). For example, a portrait of Constantina, at the “crest of the vault” (224), is surrounded by grapevine filled with putti and with birds to harvest the grapes (224). Putti at the bottom drive “wagonloads of grapes” (224), “trample the grapes” (224) to “make wine” (224). The technique and style are Roman while “the subject is traditional” (226). However, the meaning is new (226). In Christian context, wine is Eucharist (226). The “making of wine” (226) is “an image of death and resurrection” (226). As seen by Constantina’s husband, it is a “pagan allusion” (226). 

  

      Constantine’s sargophagus is huge (226). It was “installed across from the other side of ambulatory in a rectangular niche over the altar” (226). The motif is a huge   grapevine curling that reaches the top and bottom of the “box” (226). At its base, there is a peacock which “symbolizes eternal life in paradise” (226). There is also one sheep (226). It could represent Constantina herself (226).  
  
     This is a signficant mausoleum.  Not only it shows the nobility of Constantina through the use of marble and mosaic, it has a very rich Christian atmosphere with traditional Roman design.      

      In the second half of the 9th century, Byzantine artists were “ambitious” (Stokstad and Cothren 248) in restoring and renewing architecture and icons (248), after iconoclasm (247).  

  

      Iconoclasm means “image breaking” (Stokstad and Cothren 247). It involves the “prohibition and destruction of visual art” (247). It started in 726 by Emperor Leo III in the Byzantine world (247). There was a second phase in 813, and ended on March 11, 843 by Empress Theodora (247). At this point in time, the central place of Byzantine images was restored (247).  

  

      It was then the “expansion of power of monasteries” (Stokstad and Cothren 248) happened in the Byzantine world. A new Macedonian dynasty of rulers, founded in 866 by Emperor Basil I, continued to 1056 (248). The Turks had military conflicts with Byzantine army until the 15th century (248). The end of the Middle Byzantine period was not because of the Turks, but because of the Christian crusaders, who took Constantinople in 1204, thus conquering the “wealthy Christian Byzantine Empire” (248). 

  

      There was a new golden age of Byzantine art during Macedonian dynasty, known as “Macedonian Renaissance” (Stokstad and Cothren 248). It was interested in “styles and themes” (248) of classical art (248).   

  

      In the Middle Byzantine period, art changed geographically (Stokstad and Cothren 248). Middle Byzantine was limited to Turkey, Black Sea, and Balkan peninsula, including Greece and southern Italy (248). Byzantine culture also spread to Russia, Ukraine, and Venice (248).  

  

      In short, it was the end of iconoclasm, the rise of power of the monastery, the Christian Crusaders conquer, and the Macedonian Renaissance that influenced the Middle Byzantine art and architecture. 

  

      The Katholikon has a “central plan with a dome, supported on squinches, rising over an octagonal core” (Stokstad and Cothren 249). On the exterior, there are apses, walls, and roofs. A “polychromed decorative effect” (249) was created. Stones and bricks are used alternatively both “vertically and horizontally” (249). “Diagonally set bricks” (249) were used to form “saw-toothed moldings” (249).  

  

      On the interior, vaulting roofs with a high central space up to the main dome flanked by “tall arched openings” (Stokstad and Cothren 249) are built. Its architectural shapes and spaces are complex (249), “including small-scaled domes, groin vaults, barrel vaults, pendentives and squinches” (250). “The barrel and tall sanctuary apes” (250) with surrounding rooms makes the design even more complicated. At the center of the main dome, there is a “mosaic of Christ Pantokrator” (250) lighted by “single, double, and triple windows” (250). There are additional beautiful mosaics decorating other sanctuary domes and half domes (250). Figures of saints appear on the “upper surfaces of the interior” (250). The lower wall has a “multicolored stone veneer” (250). Separating the congregation from the sanctuary is a screen with icons (250).

     This is an interesting building.  It is not just a central-planned building, but the design has variations to it.  It reminds me of the Gothic style where we find the stained glass windows.  Here we see the " multicolored stone veneer".  Almost like the stained glass windows, it gave colors to the interior. With the additional of icons, it really shows the traditions of that period of time with a look to the future.

      The late Byzantine Art period began in 1261 (Stokstad and Cothren 258). At this time, the Byzantine “expelled the Christian Crusaders who occupied Constantinople for almost 60 years” (258). The Empire is not as strong as before, but the Palacologne Renaissance period appeared (258). The emperors, wealthy “courtiers” (258) and the church stimulated renewal of churches and production of precious objects (258).  

  

      The expansion included: “a two-story annex on the north side, two narthexes on the west, and a parekklesion (side chapel) used as a funerary chapel on the south” (Stokstad and Cothren 258). These structures contain superb interior decorations which can be compared with Justinian artworks, only more “intimate” (258).  

  

      The “walls and vaults” of the side chapel are covered with frescos (Stokstad and Cothren 258) and narthex vaults with mosaics (258). Mosaics cover all the surface of the upper walls “with narrative scenes” (258) of lives of Jesus and his mother (258), and “ornamental framework” (258). The artists pay special attention to the settings (259). The background shows its “three dimensionality” (259) by “projecting forward in relation to a point in the foreground” (259). In this way, attention is drawn to scenes of the figures (259). 

  

      The late Byzantine art, here, the Chora mosaics, was interested in expressing emotion, “a level of human tenderness” (Stokstad and Cothren 259) in the religious narratives (259). For example, one vault has the scene of baby Mary in between her parents, Joachim, and Anna (259). The gestures of the people in this scene, which are admiration and approval, are also expected from viewers (259). The poses are so informal and believable that makes people recall the artworks of Giotto and Duccio of Italy (259). 

This expansion is actually very major, considering the size of it.  The intimate (Stokstad and Cothren 259) interior decorations make the live story of Jesus more convincing. This is good for making people believe.

      At the beginning of 11th century, “Europe was divided into small units” (Stokstad and Cothren 460) politically and economically (460). King of France ruled Ile-de-France (around Paris), Northern Spain had close connection to Southern France, with Duke of Normandy in the north, and Duke of Burgundy in the east (460).  

  

      In around 1066, William the conqueror became King of England (Stokstad and Cothren 460). Normans took the place of Anglo-Saxon nobles (460). Normans “formed a close alliance with the Church” (460), gave them land, in return getting the abbots’ and bishops’ loyalty (460). This led to the rise of the church. 

  

      By 1085, Alfonso VI of Castile and Leon conquered Toledo of Muslim (Stokstad and Cothren 460), which was “a center of Islamic and Jewish culture” (460) in Castile (460).  

  

      At the end of 12th century, strong leaders like Capetians in France were successful “creating national states” (Stokstad and Cothren 460). In Germany and northern Italy, local rulers were in power (460). 

  

      “Europe remained an agricultural society” (Stokstad and Cothren 460) which led to the rise of artisans and merchants' class (460). It also led to more food supply and more people (460). Land was the “primary source of wealth and power” (460).  

  

      At the time, war, famine, and disease affected Europe (Stokstad and Cothren 460). 

 
2. Factors affecting the Romanesque art and architecture 

      First, as mentioned in part A, European King, Alfonso VI of Castile, and Leon conquered Muslim territory of Toledo (Stokstad and Cothren 460). As “a center of Islamic and Jewish culture” (460), these different cultures influenced European art (460). 

  

      Second, the rise of the Church. As mentioned in Part A, Kings started giving land to the Church because they wanted the loyalty of the abbots and bishops (Stokstad and Cothren 460). These leaders of the Church in turn possessed wealth and power (460). This was also the reason for the royalties to be friends with the Church.  

  

      The Church became the “center of European culture” (Stokstad and Cothren 460). In early Middle Ages, Christian rulers helped the spread of Christianity in Europe and supported monasteries with land (460). Churches in turn, provided “social and spiritual support” (460) and education for the administrators (460). Some bishops and abbots were relatives of the noble and royalty (460). Therefore, at the Romanesque period, “secular and religious authority became tightly intertwined” (460). Because the church was the major land holders (460), abbots were “part of the political power structure (460). 

  

      Since the church community intertwined with secular world, it led to reform movements (Stokstad and Cothren 460) for “a return to spirituality” (460). Cluny and Cistercians were the groups that seeked reforms (460). 

  

      Third, pilgrimages increased because pilgrims got rewards for their journeys (Stokstad and Cothren 460). The result was more artists and architects wanted to create new buildings and arts to attract pilgrims’ attention (460). 

  

      Last but not least, the crusades were one of the factors affecting the Romanesque period (Stokstad and Cothren 460). In 11th and 12th century, Christian-Europe, instead of playing defense against Islam (460), “became the aggressor” (460). At this time, Byzantine emperor asked for the help of the pope to fight against the Muslims (460). This led to a few holy wars known as the crusades (460). There were total of three crusades where Western Church fought against Muslims (460). All three failed (461). Jerusalem was captured by Muslims in 1187 (461). The crusades have “far reaching cultural and economic consequences” (461). Western Europe was connected with complex “material culture” (461) of Islam and Byzantine (461). Also, trade was stimulated leading to urban society formed during the 11th and 12th century (461).  

  

      After the year 1000, all-masonry churches were built in north-east Spain, southern France, and northern Italy, using “methods of late Roman builders” (Stokstad and Cothren 463). 

  

      Five characteristics of Romanesque Architecture are: First, all masonry buildings (Stokstad and Cothren 463). Second, masonry vaults which are more durable (462) and “enhanced the Gregorian chant” (462). Third, stone towers (463). Fourth, portals with sculptures (463). Fifth, rounded arches (461). 

  

      The Church of Saint Vincenc, Cardona is a “fine example of the first Romanesque” (Stokstad and Cothren 463) when early stone-vaulted buildings were constructed (463). This church was constructed starting in the 1020’s and consecrated in 1040 (463). It is in the Castle of Cardona (463).  

  

      To enter the church, a two-story narthex passes through (463). Then a nave with low narrow side aisles and clerestory windows in nave walls is reached (463). The sanctuary is raised over an aisle-crypt (463).  

  

      To make the exterior walls stronger, strip buttresses were used to reinforce or support the walls (Stokstad and Cothren 463). Additional layers of stone were piled up (“Details of Romanesque Engineering” Video 3:40-3:59) which were used “to counter... outward thrust of the vault” (6:37-6:45). It gives both “engineering and sculptural” (8:53-8:57) touch to the building.  

  

      On the interior, these strips create many transverse arches (Stokstad and Cothren 463). These transverse arches divide the nave into a series of bays (463). This system of “bay division” (463) is standard in Romanesque architecture (463). To compare Romanesque to pre-Romanesque churches, pre-Romanesque used flat walls and undivided space (463).

  

      Material used were local stones, river pebbles, bricks, “very strong mortar” (Stokstad and Cothren 463) to “raise plain walls and round barrel or groin vaults” (463). The masonry was originally covered with stucco (463). 

       It is amazing how people can build churches with all the stones. Just imagine all the forces from the roof.  And it stands for hundreds of years.  This is an important church because it shows the basic architectural standards of Romanesque churches. Churches are actually very beautiful.  it makes you think of Christian teaching. Having a chance to worship in such a solemn structure is a blessing.

       I first thought it was just a fad to build these stone churches, since it was just people's urge to show off their wealth and churches. But it's influence went all the way to Gothic and beyond.

Gothic emerged in Ile-de-France (around Paris) (Stokstad and Cothren 496). It dominated Europe’s art and architecture for 400 years (495). 

  

      As the French Royal Domain expanded between 12th to 14th century, it stretched from the original Ile-de-France region to western and southern France (Stokstad and Cothren 496). As the French Kings tried to increase their domain, a “building boom” (497) appeared together “with the growing centralization of their government” (497). Bishops, abbots, and rulers competed in building elaborate churches with taller naves and towers, walls of stained-glass windows and an airy interior (495).  

 
 2. There are three factors for the emergence of Gothic style: 

      First, “advances in building technology” (Stokstad and Cothren 495) allowed larger windows, higher vaults, slim exterior buttressing for the buildings (495). Actually, Gothic “spread over Western Europe” (496) and replaced Romanesque style (496). Architecture still had regional characteristics inspired by Romanesque (496).  

  

      Second, increasing financial resources (Stokstad and Cothren 495). Resources from nobles and royalties, and the wealthy churches led to the construction of elaborate buildings with stained glass windows and huge sculptures. It also funded the new building technology. 

  

      Third, the rise of urban and intellectual life (Stokstad and Cothren 496). Towns were developed where “intellectual life was stimulated by the interaction of so many people living side by side” (496). Paris became an urban center. Universities in, for example, Paris, Cambridge, Oxford were established (496). Scholasticism emerged (497). Scholasticism is important because it reconciled “Christian theology and classical philosophy (497). It set up “the foundation on which Catholic thought rests to this day” (497).  

  

      These new ways of thinking led to the “geometrical order of Gothic Cathedrals” (Stokstad and Cothren 497). It also led to “describing… the natural world in sculpture and painting” (497). 

  

  

      It is Parisian style, and it emerged from Suger’s choir at Saint-Denis (Stokstad and Cothren 514). With a 4-part rib groin vault (“Saint Chapelle, Paris” Video 1:58-1:59), the interior walls were designed with thin “piers and mullions” (Stokstad and Cothren 514) acting as "skeletal support"(514) for the stained-glass windows (514). The exterior has external buttressing which “projects” (514) from the piers to around the building (514). “Interlocking iron bars between the piers” (514) and within the windows” (514) are used for “stabilization” (514). These supports are invisible from the inside (514). Only the stained glass, with theme of “Kingship” (514) can be seen (514). 

  

      The 2-story building was not only used by the “King and his court” (Stokstad and Cothren 512), but also for common people to venerate and celebrate the relic (512). It has an upper chapel and a lower chapel (512). The upper chapel has walls of all stained glass (512). The walls are “all glittering” (512) and “multi-colored” (512). It gives people a very glamourous and rich feeling. The stained-glass windows around the sanctuary apse (512) have “narratives” (512) with themes of the Mass (512). Along the “straight side walls” (512) are four-lancet windows with stories of Kings and Queens of the Hebrew Bible (512). Kings and queens sat at Mass (512). The theme of Kingship dominates the church’s interior (512).  

 I do not think it is necessary to decorate a church to such an extent. But if people at that time worshipped the king and royalty like they worship the Lord, it might have served the king's purposes.

"Imperial Christian Art." Youtube, uploaded by Elizabeth Moorchild, 21 Aug. 2019, www.youtube.com/watch?v=MDbBBMQyDhQ.

Pirozzi, Vincenzo. Church of Santa Sabina, Rome. Art History, by Stokstad, Marilyn, and Michael W. Cothren, 5th ed., Pearson, 2014, p. 224.

"Recording #16." Youtube, uploaded by Elizabeth Moorchild, 8 Sept. 2019, www.youtube.com/watch?v=L5HInu4r7NU. 

"Sainte-Chapelle, Paris." Youtube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 22 May 2017, www.youtube.com/watch?v=vigjJih8Pn4. 

 Stokstad, Marilyn, and Michael W. Cothren. Art History. 5th ed., Pearson, 2014.