George William Frederick, King George III, the eldest son of Frederick Louis, and Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, ruled from 1760 to 1820. He was born in England and was the third Hanoverian monarch.  During the last decade of his reign, George was diagnosed with a mental illness that is believed to be porphyria. As a consequence, the Parliament decided that it was necessary for his son, the later George IV, to act as a Prince Regent. In view of that, the “Regency Bill” was proposed in 1789. However, in this initial attempt, George III recovered from his illness before the bill was passed. Finally, in 1811, since the King was once more mentally ‘incapable’ to rule, the Parliament approved the bill, despite George III not agreeing with it. 

Main events during his reign: 

“An Act to provide for the Administration of the Royal Authority, and for the Care of His Majesty's Royal Person, during the Continuance of His Majesty's Illness; and for the Resumption of the Exercise of the Royal Authority by His Majesty” 

[5th February 1811]

“'WHEREAS by reason of the severe Indisposition with which it hath pleased God to afflict the King's Most Excellent Majesty, the Personal Exercise of the Royal Authority by His Majesty is, for the present, so far interrupted, that it becomes necessary to make Provision for assisting His Majesty in the Administration and Exercise of the Royal Authority, and also for the Care of his Royal Person during the continuance of His Majesty's Indisposition, and for the Resumption of the Exercise of the Royal Authority by His Majesty;' Be it therefore enacted by the King's Most Excellent Majesty, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the Authority of the same, That His Royal Highness George Augustus Frederick Prince of Wales shall have full Power and Authority, in the Name and on the Behalf of His Majesty, and under the Stile and Title of ‘Regent of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland’ […]”. 

George Augustus Frederick, the eldest son of George III and Charlotte Sofia of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, became the Prince Regent in 1811, due to his father’s illness. In 1820, after George’s III death, he finally was crowned King George IV (r. 1820-1830). While young, George was considered to be the "First Gentleman of Europe", but this title was undermined during his reign. As a King, he was known, on the one hand,  for his “selfishness, extravagance and lazy dissipation”; he also had many ‘affairs’ and a reprehensible moral. However, on the other hand, King George IV had a huge interest in literature, art, and architecture. In this sense, during his rule, there were several achievements in the cultural sphere. Despite these accomplishments, George IV’s acts as a King were not very significant. 

 

Great Britain had been waging a global war against France since 1793. This conflict led the two world powers to attempt to restrict international trade. While Revolutionary France declared Napoleon's Continental System, which considered every ship that landed in British ports an enemy, the British Parliament issued twelve “Orders in Council” (1783-1812) that asserted that every merchant ship bound for a French port was subject to search and seizure.  As a consequence, the United States was placed in a complex situation: if it traded with Britain, it would wrath France; and if it traded with France, it would wrath Britain. Faced with that conjecture, the American congress started to pass non-importation and embargo acts in order to demonstrate to both empires the losses of not having access to the American markets. However, these acts did not seem to affect Europe and, in the end, the United States was dealing with an enormous economic depression. Moreover, the British Government was also taking some attitudes that were increasing the dissatisfaction of the United States: 

In view of that conjecture, on June 18, 1812, when James Maddison became the president, the United States declared war against Britain. As a matter of fact, although the British Parliament, under the power of Lord Liverpool, on June 16, 1812, repealed the Orders, the conflict still went on.  

The East India Company Act (1813) was a measure taken by the British Parliament. During this period, on account of Napoleon’s Continental System in Europe that prohibited French allies from importing British products, the tradesmen and merchants were passing through financial issues. In view of that conjecture, they required the end of the East India Company’s monopoly in order for them to have access to this trade in Asia. Even though the Company initially rejected this proposal, in 1813, it was passed the Charter Act, which allowed both tradesmen and merchants, in conformity to a licensing system, to trade in India. Yet, the monopoly remained for the tea and opium trade, as well as the trade in China. 

-Features of the Charter Act: 

 

The Battle of Toulouse happened on 10 April 1814 in the Southern of France. This was one of the last conflicts of the Napoleonic Wars. Portuguese, Spanish, and British troops, led by Field Marshal Wellington, started to march to the Southern of France. As a result, the French commander, Marshal Nicolas Soult, decided to direct his troops to Toulouse in order to fortify his army. In the meantime, Field Marshal Wellington was able to divide his army and surround the city on three sides: in the west, there was Lieutenant General Sir Rowland Hill along with his second division and the Portuguese Division; in the east, there were two divisions organized by Marshal Sir William Beresford and also the two Spanish divisions commanded by General Manuel Freires; finally, in the north, there was the third Division lead by Lieutenant-General Sir Thomas Picton and the Light Division. Faced with that strategy and knowing that Napoleon had abdicated, Nicolas Soult decided, on 17th April, to make an agreement of armistice with Wellington. 

In February 1815 Napoleon could escape from his exile, being able to return to power in France. His idea was to go on an offensive and achieve a victory in a battle in order to end the Seventh Coalition, which was created between the European armies, against him. Faced with that conjecture, the British, Russian, Austrian, and Prussian troops started to prepare for another conflict. Knowing that his army was not enough for combating the entire coalition while they were together, Napoleon decided to attack them individually. In June, he conducted his army to Belgium, where the British and Prussian troops were located. On 16 June, during the Battle of Ligny, Napoleon could, temporally, defeat the Prussian army. However, this army was able to regroup and march to Waterloo. On 18 June, Napoleon decided to lead his troops on an offensive against the British army, which was positioned close to the Prussian. Before the battle started, Napoleon gave the command for his troops to wait until the ground was dry. In the meantime, the Prussian troops were able to arrive and join the British army, which was under the command of Arthur Wellesley, the Duke of Wellington, and counted with Belgian, Dutch, and German troops. As a consequence, due to the unsuccess of Napoleon's strategies and the fact that the British and Prussian troops were better prepared for the battle, Napoleon faced several losses. Soon afterward, on 7 July, the forces from the Seventh Coalition were able to enter France and reinstate Louis XVIII on the throne. Finally, on 15 July, Napoleon surrendered to the British government and was exiled in 1821. 

The Napoleonic Wars lasted for a significant period and this resulted in a lot of expenses. Great Britain, from the first conflict, in 1793, to the final battle, in Waterloo, in 1815, spent more than £ 1,650,000,000. It is estimated that most of this amount was raised by the huge taxation and incomes that were introduced during this period. At the end of the war, Great Britain was passing through an economic and social crisis. There were several riots and the community was unsatisfied with the situation they were living in: poverty, unemployment, high food prices, and incomes, not to mention the many deaths caused by the battles. 

After the end of the Napoleonic Wars, it was expected that food prices would fall in Britain since it would be, once more, possible to trade with the rest of Europe. Nevertheless, the importing of grains was considered to be prejudicial for the interest of the landowners and, therefore, Tory Prime Minister, Lord Liverpool, passed the Corn Laws in 1815.  Based on the Corn Laws, the imported grains and cereals, which were cheaper,  started to be taxed with tariffs in order to ‘protect’ the local produce. As a consequence, it was asserted that the people would only have access to domestic grains. This measure was considered to privilege the landowners, whereas the working class was in an even poorer situation. In this sense, there were several objections to this law, many petitions were signed and several riots broke out, demonstrating people’s discontent. However, even though there was huge opposition since the rural groups had more political power and influence, the Corn Laws were only repealed in 1846 by the Conservative Minister, Robert Peel. The main reason that seems to have motivated his decision was the Great Famine in Ireland that happened during the years of 1845-1862 on account of a disease that affected the potato crop.  It is estimated that the grain’s price needed to reach 80 shillings a quarter, generating a high rate of famine levels, for the imports to become once again allowed. 

Great Britain, after the end of the Napoleonic Wars, was passing through an economic slump. There was a high rate of unemployment, harvest failure, and high food prices, mainly because of what is called the “Year Without a Summer" and the Themes froze in the winter of 1814. The institution of the Corn Laws worsened the situation by raising the price of food. Moreover, this moment was marked by industrialization in which there was a constant cycle of relative progress, followed by stagnation and depression. In this regard, it can be acknowledged that society was open to social conflicts, which were related to the growth of consciousness of the middle and working class, as a result of the French Revolution. During this historical period, not all adult males had the right to vote. In fact, the agriculturists were the ones with more political power, whereas the rest of the population could barely participate in the decisions. In light of that conjecture, some people started to advocate for social changes with parliamentary reform. In 1817 the House of Commons denied a petition that aimed for manhood suffrage. In 1819, the Manchester Patriotic Union, led by Henry Hunt, organized a meeting to show popular dissatisfaction. The rally was attended by 60,000 people: women, men, and children, none of them armed. The local magistrates, fearing a revolution, called on Manchester and Salford Yeomanry to arrest Hunt and other members. Additionally, William Hilton ordained the 15th Hussars to disperse the crowd. The contention of this rally was extremely violent.  It is believed that the cavalry caused the death of fifteen people and more than six hundred got injured. 

Consequences of the Peterloo Massacre:

The Six Acts were promoted in 1819, by the conservative Henry Addington,  1st Viscount  Sidmouth, the Home Secretary, after the Peterloo Massacre. It consisted of different legislations that monitored and restricted both public and press freedom. In this sense, it promulgated barriers to public meetings, which demanded permission to occur. Moreover, there was also repression of the materials that were being published, if they were considered to be ‘dangerous’ for generating popular revolts. All these acts were proposed in an attempt to reduce the manifestations and riots, by controlling the population. However, they were faced by society with extreme resistance. 

 

 

After George’s III death, when the Prince Regent was finally crowned King George IV, there was a plot to kill the Lord Liverpool and all the members of his cabinet. The main objective of this attempt was to start a revolutionary government which was based on the Committee of Safety, elaborated by Robespierre in the French Revolution. This plot was a result of the problematic atmosphere of England, being its antecedents the Peterloo Massacre and the Six Acts. Arthur Thistlewood, the soldier who led this conspiracy, gathered about 30 men on the 23 of February and tried to carry out their attack. The plot was unsuccessful because of the presence, in the group, of a spy from the government. The members involved in this attack were arrested, charged with treason, and then hanged. 

Jane Austen (1775-1817) is an English writer who lived during the reigns of George III and George IV. She is considered to be the first novelist to introduce the modern character, by depicting ordinary and common people in their daily lives. In all her novels it is possible to observe the representation of middle-class reality in the Nineteenth-century. In this regard, her productions can be also classified as manner novels, once they focus on a more realistic portrayal of the ‘domestic’ and familiar setting. By dealing with this subject, Jane Austen utilizes satire and comic elements that criticize the constitution of the late Eighteenth and Nineteenth British society. To this extent, all her heroines are psychologically constructed in a way that they illustrate a tension with the traditional social patterns: they are intelligent, determined, confident, and strong-willed; yet, due to the social conjecture of the period,  they all depend on marriage in order to have financial stability. Moreover, in her novels, there is likewise the problematization of the moral values and the institutions that sustained society, such as religion and marriage. 

Although while Jane Austen was alive her productions were not quite recognized, nowadays critics admire her style of writing, the construction of her novels, and how they were able to represent the social, cultural, religious, and economic features of the Nineteenth-century. 

-Jane Austen’s literary works: 

In 1801, the Act of Union, which consolidated the union of Great Britain (England and Scotland) and Ireland,  abolished the Irish Parliament. As a consequence, Ireland started to be represented by the Parliament in Westminster. However, due to the Penal Laws, the Irish people could not become members of the Parliament. Faced with that conjecture, Daniel O’ Conell, a catholic Irish, aiming for Catholic Emancipation, started the Catholic Association in 1823. In 1828 he was able to stand for election and his victory generated great excitement for the Irish population. Yet, since O’ Connel was catholic he was not allowed to take the charge and that caused popular dissatisfaction. Robert Peel, the Home Secretary of the British Government, worried about the possibility of a new revolution, decided to pass the Catholic Relief Act in 1829. Still, King George IV was resistant to this measure and only accepted it after the Duke of Wellington threatened to resign his position as Prime Minister. On account of this act, members of the Catholic Church were allowed to sit in the Parliament at Westminster.