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"The Mayan Calendar & Concept of Time." The Mayan Calendar & Concept of Time. Accessed December 13, 2016. https://www.timecenter.com/articles/the-mayan-calendar-and-concept-of-time/. 

Cartwright, Mark. "The Ball Game of Mesoamerica." Ancient History Encyclopedia. Accessed December 13, 2016. http://www.ancient.eu/article/604/.

Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Pre-Hispanic City of Chichen-Itza." UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Accessed December 13, 2016. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/483.

Rice, Prudence M.. Maya Calendar Origins. Austin, US: University of Texas Press, 2007. ProQuest ebrary. Web. 12 December 2016.

Scarre, Christopher. The Human Past: World Prehistory & the Development of Human Societies. New York, NY: Thames & Hudson, 2005.

The most celebrated post classic kingdom is that of the Toltecs in Tula, who were the successors of Teotihuacan. The Toltecs were greatly revered by the Aztecs, who had created many mythological stories about the Toltecs. They began as a small group of people in AD 700 that matured into a huge city of about 60,000 people between AD 900 and 1200. The common houses at Tula were a set of rectangular adobe structures with a central courtyard. They had many workshops where they manufactured special products like obsidian. Tula wasn’t as powerful as Teotihucan but they did have strong links with the rest of Mesoamerica and beyond its borders. There have been Tula trading colonies as far south as El Salvador, and exchanges with people far to the south such as Casas Grandes in norther Mexico. Tula appears to have fallen around AD 1150-1200. Their fall appears to have been violent with signs of burning of principle buildings (Scarre, 628-631).  

One of the most famous Mesoamerican cultures is lowland Maya  partly because we are able to understand their texts and calendars which has helped archaeologists have a unique understanding of their culture. During the late preclassic and early classic periods, AD 250-600, Tikal became the Maya superpower, allied with Teotihuacan, who was in a struggle with another great alliance led by the Calakmul. These struggles caused population decline and political crisis during the early classic period. This period of mayhem led to massive reorganization of Maya society and culture which ultimately led to its power. After AD 600 we see an increase in monuments that show kings and lords in a more personalized way with an increased emphasis of war. 20,000 texts were found dating to this time most were used in palaces or elite residences and focused on Maya elite society with titles of rulers and dynasty emblems (Scarre, 622-623). 

The Maya lowlands consisted of 45-50 small kingdoms, that were never wholly unified, which we can see from the different glyph's associated with them. Because of the lack of unification, Maya experienced much political and demographic instability, with cycles of prosperity and decline. Each kingdom focused on a central precinct that had a huge masonry pyramid-temple where kings and lords lived, this pyramids also grew to incorporate the elaborate tombs of elites and rulers. These monuments were the centers of zones where the kings and elites ruled with the households of lesser people radiating out from them. Maya social structure is formatted with the king at the top central to the Maya society. Kings were expected to be powerful warriors, which we see from their monuments that boast the capture and sacrifice of enemies. Next is great lords and officials who did not pay tax but were expected to serve the king in the army or by keeping his books or leading ritual. In texts these lords are characterized as owned by the king. At the bottom at this time are the commoners. They were mostly farmers who paid tax either in goods or labor or both (scarre, 623-626). 

We don’t know much about Teotihuacan’s social and political structure but there have been found the looted remains of at least one major tomb with 40 sacrificial victims. These victims have also helped to show that Teotihuacan was actually war like. Their influence stretched as far as the Maya lowlands, highland Guatemala, the Gulf Coast, Monte Alban, and even north to Alta Vista. Their influence was more than just political it was also cultural. Teotihuacan artistic and architectural evidence can be found all over, like at several sites in Yucatan. 

The demise of Teotihuacan appears to have been violent although we unsure exactly what is responsible, there is evidence of burned and looted buildings around AD 700-750. It seems likely the fall was due to internal struggles. (Scarre, 613-620)

No matter how writing and the calendar originated it appears to be the symptoms of the rise of kingship and the territorial state. We see evidence for kingship's in monuments and dated inscriptions such as the Hauberg Stela. Such monuments became increasingly common around AD 250. The scale and complexity of constructing of temples, ball courts, and other buildings are indicative of a central authority (Scarre, 610). 

During this time period we also see the rise of the Olmec people. The two most impressive Olmec societies were San Lorenzo and La Venta. San Lorenzo thrived from 1200-900 BC. They built an impressive structure called the Red Palace which appears to be first evidence of elites. They also had objects such as polished exotic iron and jade carvings to show wealth. San Lorenzo declined in 900 BC with the rise of La Venta. They built an impressive earthen pyramid. There was found an elaborate tomb of two infants which provide the earliest evidence of inherited rank and social position in Mesoamerica (Scarre, 602-603). 

The start date that is drawn for the preclassic is due to the appearance of pottery at 2000 BC, a century or so later pottery was widespread. Another important preclassic innovation is prismatic blades, first appearing by 1500 BC through to the 16th century. They were widely used for trade (Scarre 600).

First widespread sedentary communities date to around 1600 BC and still weren’t complete dependent on agriculture. This villages consisted of simple houses with earth floors, walls of wattle, and roofs of thatch with the spaces between houses used to garden. At sites such as San Jose Mogote imported goods such as macaw feathers, oyster shells, and turtle shell show some evidence of wealth. There is also signs of warfare and violence, but no evidence of large residences or elaborate burials (Scarre, 601). These villages are the beginning of complex societies.

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