Traditional West African slavery has existed for 3,500 years as recorded by the Egyptians (Rodet). West Africans were either enslaved to pay off a debt, or taken as prisoners of war and witchcraft (Lovejoy). Some worked on the fields and households, others were soldiers. One enslaved woman in Africa, recalled being fed and treated well (Searing). African societies allowed the descendants of slaves to be freed and there was no dominant race (Lovejoy).  

White bonded labour is characterized as debt slavery, whereby a person has to pledge their services to pay off their debt. Propaganda in Europe convinced some poor individuals to venture to the West for a better life, while others were criminals (Pancak). Some White labourers were under a 5–7 year contract after which they were paid (Pancak). Even though they possessed the same skin colour as the plantation owners, they were still considered to be inferior and were not allowed to have children or marry.

Chattel slavery in essence, describes a person who has no rights or freedom and is the legal property of another. Africans were snatched from their homes and forced into enslavement in the Caribbean. Skin colour played a major role, as racism was evident in journals of the masters (Searing). Even if the plantation owner was African, he was not considered equal to the White men (Searing). All children born to enslaved mothers were also considered slaves, regardless of the status of the father (Pancak). However, some lighter skin or ‘mixed’ individuals were considered middle-class. 

Slaves were often over worked. Some died on the fields and had no control over their lives and were auctioned off and separated from their families (Besson). For those reasons, White bonded labourers bear some similarity to Chattel slavery. However, White bonded labourers tilled the land, producing tobacco and cotton, whereas African slaves had more strenuous jobs on the sugar plantations (Pancak). Lastly, West Africans allowed a better integration of former slaves back into society, while Chattel slavery resulted in the complete mental and physical destruction of the enslaved and their culture.

References

Besson, Gerard A. " White servants in the Caribbean." 2012. Caribbean History Archives. 03 July 2018. <http://caribbeanhistoryarchives.blogspot.com/2012/07/white-servants-in-caribbean.html>.

Lovejoy, Paul E. "Slavery in Africa." The Routledge History of Slavery. London: Routledge, 2010. 17-18.

Pancak, W. "Colonial America: Land Of Opportunity For White Bonded Labor?" Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies 55.4 (1988): 218-221.

Rodet, Marie. "Slavery: West Africa." Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures (2016).

Searing, James F. West African Slavery and Atlantic Commerce: The Senegal River Valley, 1700-1860. Cambridge University Press, 2003.

However, Thomas Holt called the Apprenticeship period “A half-way covenant“ (Tyrell).  Conditions of employment consisted of physical and verbal abuse; a heavy workload, low wages, no sick leave and unpleasant working conditions (Tyrell). Punishments like whipping and shaving the women’s heads were still in effect (Hyman). The owners could decide when the apprentice's work was unsatisfactory and force them to do extra work or deny rations. 

Stipendiary Magistrates were appointed to enforce the Apprenticeship period and settle disputes, but often sided with the plantation owner upon bribery (Heuman). Apprentices were also locked up on false charges and forced to work in order to repay the time lost. Missionaries were appointed to mould the thinking of the Apprentices, encourage work habits, build churches and establish Eurocentric social patterns that would keep them ‘settled’ (McGlynn and Drescher). Furthermore, it was illegal for Apprentices to leave the plantation in their free time without permission, thus emphasizing the lack of freedom experienced (Hyman).

Therefore, it is appropriate to characterize the Apprenticeship period as neither freedom nor enslavement. Harsh punishments endured by the Apprentices were reported to Colonial Offices in 1837, which then compelled the British Government to declare the freedom of all Apprentices on August 1^st 1838 (McGlynn and Drescher).

                                              References

Heuman, Gad. "Riots and resistance in the Caribbean at the moment of freedom." Slave and Post-Slave Studies 21.2 (2000): 135-149.

Hyman, Debbion. "Emancipation and the Apprenticeshipe System in the Britich Caribbean." Jamaican Gleaner (2017).

McGlynn, Frank and Seymour Drescher. The Meaning of Freedom. University of Pittsburgh Press, 1992.

Tyrell, Alex. "The 'Moral Radical Party' and the Anglo-Jamaican Campaign for the Abolition of the Negro Apprenticeship System." The English Historical Review 99.392 (1984): 481-502.

Following Emancipation in1838, the English Government held the viewpoint that with the removal of the ‘controls’ slavery provided, the Caribbean society would face destabilization. Financial support from the Imperial Government and the Negro Education Grant established church schools (Whitehead). Ex-slaves with the notion that Christianity and education allowed social mobility and advancement enrolled their children and themselves in the church schools.

However, the expansion of mass schooling in 1870-1940 was determined by economic, social, political and religious factors (Benavot and Riddle). The primary aim of education was to create a docile and religious lower class, thus maintaining social control of the emancipated slaves and the hegemony of the higher class (Benavot and Riddle). 

Primary education consisted of reading, writing, and religious studies. The Caribbean curriculum was segregated allowing boys to be taught arithmetic and manual arts while the girls were taught sewing and domestic science (Pearse). It was based on the perception that education was more crucial for boys than girls, as only privileged boys received secondary education. This was evident with the establishment of St. Mary's College in Trinidad in 1868, dedicated to the education of Catholic boys only (Samaroo). 

Eurocentric values were taught as European History, Geography and Literature were considered superior. Another instance of social control is evident in 1898, whereby Jamaican boys were taught Agriculture because society was developing an aversion to the rural country-sides and had begun migrating to the city areas (Benavot and Riddle). 

By 1911, 61 schools targeted the Indian population through Presbyterian institutions, which had been established by Canadian Missionaries (Samaroo). Education was used as a tool to control the Indian population since the Missionaries outlined a specific dress code, recommended they alter their behaviour and converted them into the Presbyterian faith, in order to preserve Eurocentric values. Only in later years with the emergence of Hindu and Muslim institutions, Indians were allowed to practice their religion and obtain and education simultaneously. 

                                                 References

Benavot, Aaron And Phyllis Riddle. "The Expansion Of Primary Education, 1870-1940: Trends And Issues." Sociology Of Education 61.3 (1988): 191-210.

Pearse, Andrew. "Education In The British Caribbean: Social And Economic Background." Vox Guyanae 2.1 (1956)): 9-24.

Samaroo, Brinsley. "The Presbyterian Canadian Mission As An Agent Of Integration In Trinidad During The Nineteenth And Early Twentieth Centuries." Caribbean Studies 14.1 (1975): 41-55.

Whitehead, Clive. "The Concept Of British Education Policy In The Colonies 1850–1960." Journal Of Educational Administration And History 39.2 (2007): 161-173.

The Grenadian Soca artiste, Mr. Killa whose song entitled; ‘Rolly Polly’ received mixed views. Misogyny in the song is used to objectify women and treat them as sex symbols. The video comprises of tight clothes, vulgar dancing and sexual innuendoes. Common misogynistic themes included are the use of derogatory names like “Fat gyal” and “Rolly Polly” which some women find offensive. 

 

Hegemonic masculinity is expressed as the singer legitimizes his dominant position in society and justifies the downgrading of women (Connell and Gibson). He articulates his need for a ‘fat gyal’ without knowing if the ‘fat gyal’ wants him. 

In contrast however, some females find the song quite empowering as the singer somewhat serenades their body figure, something very few Soca artistes has done in the past. Being suppressed and inferior to men is easily accepted by some women in today’s culture. In addition, while an educated individual disregards the objectification and exploitation of a woman’s body in the lyrics, an uneducated young man may adopt this belief (Stolzoff). Hence, there is a direct correlation between music and the behaviour of young adults, especially those from lower-income homes (Stolzoff). 

Caribbean music has a powerful influence on people, regarding topics on love, religion, happiness, sorrow, and conflicts (Connell and Gibson). While Soca promotes movement and exercise, some songs today is governed by male sexual desires (Kempadoo). However, while the song promotes dancing and empowerment of ‘big women,’ true empowerment lies with education and spirituality, something Reggae music has been known for (Jones).

                                                 References

Connell, John And Chris Gibson. "World Music: Deterritorializing Place And Identity." Progress In Human Geography 28.3 (2004): 342 - 361.

Jones, Simon. Black Culture, White Youth: The Reggae Tradition From Ja To Uk. Palgrave Macmillan, 1988.

Kempadoo, Kamala. "Caribbean Sexuality:Mapping The Field." Caribbean Review Of Gender Studies. 3 (2009).

Mills, Wanda I. "The Complexity Of Gender A Caribbean Perspective." The Organization Of  Progressive Planning (1998).

Stolzoff, Norman C. "Wake The Town And Tell The People: Dancehall Culture In Jamaica." Journal Of Popular Music Studies 14.2 (2002): 166-167.