·  A quantity of matter which is generally of a considerable size.

·  A large body of people within a group.

·  A large number, amount or quantity.

·   The internet ,magazines, television, newspapers, books, posters etc. 

· Considered as a group the media create attention, coverage and hype.

· The media can be local and national. 

· A form of mass communication. 

 Bauer and Global Radio, own 40% of all local commercial analogue radio licences, only 14% of stations are owned independently.These two companies also control 2/3 of all commercial digital radio stations.

The five main public TV channels account for three quarters of all viewing, this said Sky is the biggest in broadcasting and revenue. 

Coalition (2014), continues to say Mark Zuckerberg owns Facebook the biggest social media network which is first on the top ten list of downloads, Facebook messenger comes in third. 

Rupert Murdoch and his family own newspapers here in the UK, Amercia and in Australia. They also own multiple television channels.

Yuill and Thorpe (2017), write media companies and businesses are owned by shareholders. Shareholders demand that a profit is made or they may have to dissolve the businesses.

(Chomsky cited in Caolition 2014), states that media outlets support the beliefs and values which are shared by the media, businesses and organisations. They avoid criticising the relationships and culture, to maintain positive and strong connections.

What is One-to -One Communicaton?

Long and Wall (2013), defines one-to-one communication as one individual communicating with another. This can be done in many ways such as, talking face to face, phone calls, e-mail, video calling and instant messaging. One-to-one also refers to businesses that use their database technology in targeting products, adverts and its services to specific users. Amazon is a great example of this as its "one to one marketing" tactic offers customers tailored offers and related products to their recent purchases.

 

 

 

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Yuill, D. C. & Thorpe , D. C., 2017. Heads up Sociology. London: Dorling Kindersley Limited.

 

 

 

Slide 1

Slide 2

Today within our presentation will be discussing the topic of censorship. Each of us will talk about freedom of speech vs freedom of the individual in differing aspects of life.   

Slide 3

I will be talking about how censorship has been implemented by both American and British governments in relation to the laws they have both created, the effects they have made upon media organisations and people within society from around the world.

Slide 4

History.com (2017), writes the freedom of the press is the right to report news or circulate their opinion without any censorship from the government. This was seen to be “one of the great bulwarks of liberty,” in America by their Founding Fathers. The American people enjoy freedom of the press it is one of the rights in the First Amendment Act.

The Bill of Rights gives constitutional protection for individual freedoms, which includes;  

·      freedom of the press 

·      freedom of speech 

·      freedom of religion 

·      the right to assemble and petition the government.

History.com (2017), continues to say just before the thirteen colonies declared their independence from Great Britain, the British government tried to censor the media in America by trying to ban newspapers from publishing disliked opinions and information, as they did in the era of the chartists by charging stamp duty. 

Slide 5

Censorship (2013), writes the United Kingdom has an environment of free expression, but it is currently fighting with mass surveillance leaks, web filtering and guidelines of social media. The UK unlike America has an unwritten laws, the right to the freedom of expression which comes from common law practice, this runs alongside basic human rights.

Slide 6

There is the law of libel, that has been changed by the Defamation Act which established royal agreement on 25 May 2013. The law being passed has enabled the restriction of “libel tourism”, it puts in place a block to stop troublesome claims, updates the requirements on internet publications and forces companies to prove any loss in finances. This reform has strengthened freedom of expression, protection for academics, bloggers and journalists. 

Slide 7

Courts (2019) says, there was a court case that involved the freedom of the press which took place in in America in 1734. The British governor at the time William Cosby decided to bring a libel case against the publisher of The New York Weekly Journal, who was John Peter Zenger, this was for publishing critical comments of the government run by Cosby. Zenger though was acquitted. 

This shows that even publishers of newspapers can have freedom of speech with their opinions and what they include within their articles, no matter how detrimental the effects of their opinions upon an individual.  

 

Slide 8

Branston and Stafford (1996), say in 2017 a non-profit, freedom house in the USA, discovered from its studies that 13% of the population worldwide enjoys a free press/media environment. Coverage of news is detailed, hard hitting and un-censored, with the safety of journalists being of great importance. On the other hand there is the Justice and Security Act in the UK, this is where it can be decided to exclude the media from hearings if they feel a secretive evidential procedure should be used. This can cover cases where a claimant has been the subject of extra-judicial imprisonment or torture for example. This is having the affect that the media are not able to oversee proceedings so are censored for the protection of individuals. 

Slide 9

O'Sullivan, Dutton and Rayner (1994), write the act of free speech in the UK is heightened by the Freedom of Information laws. Information requests are primarily free with responses being very rapid. This makes information easy to access and un-censored which does not protect the individual.  The UK also has fairly rigid state secrecy legislation but has nothing firmly in place for the protection of its people. The UK used to have interest in defending the public by the protection of the Official Secrets Act, but it was taken away in 1989 and was never been replaced.

Slide 10

 The government rarely intervene with censoring the media, they do not do this as it would be seen as anti- democratic. However they do reserve the right for national emergencies and times of crises. For example in 1939 Winston Churchill banned a communist newspaper the Daily Worker because it was identified as a threat towards a united war effort.

 

Slide 11

O’Sullivan et al (1994), continue to say the media though are subjected to specific forms of censorship by regulatory bodies and separate legislation.  In cinema/DVD and video The British Board of Film Classification apply categories to protect younger viewers. The Press Complaints commission is in place to consider any complaints made by the public and assess the standard and accuracy of articles published in newspapers. The PCC do say that all individuals are entitled to respect for their private/family life. On the other hand they also say that newspapers can intrude in a person’s private life if it is within the publics interest.  

Slide 12

With the information I have come across both the UK and America say they want to protect their people and equally have legislation and procedures in place to do so. The media though are also protected but given the freedom and access to gain information they need in the correct manner, if they did not have this freedom, they would not be able to do the job they are there to do. For the world to function appropriately a certain amount of freedom of speech and freedom of the individual is needed.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Branston, G. & Stafford, R., 1996. The Media Students Book. London: Routledge.

Censorship, I. o., 2013. United Kingdom a tarnished reputation for Free expression. [Online] 
 Available at: https://www.indexoncensorship.org/2013/08/united-kingdom-a-tarnished-reputation-for-free-expression/
 [Accessed 29 03 2019].

Britannica Encyclopaedia (2019), The First Amendment Act [Online Image]

Available at: https://www.britannica.com/topic/First-Amendment

(Accessed on) 10 April 2019

British Independence News (2019) Freedom of Speech [Online Image]

Available at: https://www.facebook.com/pg/British-Independence-News-988882321295204/posts/

(Accessed on) 23 April 2019

 

Courts, H. S. o. t. N. Y., 2019. The Crown vs John Peter Zenger. [Online] 
 Available at: http://www.nycourts.gov/history/legal-history-new-york/legal-history-eras-01/history-new-york-legal-eras-crown-zenger.html
 [Accessed 10 04 2019].

History.com, 2017. Freedom of the Press. [Online] 
 Available at: https://www.history.com/topics/united-states-constitution/freedom-of-the-press
 [Accessed 29 03 2019].

 

Legal History New York (2019) The John Peter Zenger Trial [Online Image]

Available at: http://www.nycourts.gov/history/legal-history-new-york/legal-history-eras-01/image-crown-zenger-tryal-page.jpg

(Accessed on) 23 April 2019  

 

 

O'Sullivan, T., Dutton, B. & Rayner, P., 1994. Studying The Media. London: Hodder Arnold.

 

 

 Sheetz. K (2019), Houses of Parliament [Online Image]

Available at: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Houses-of-Parliament-buildings-London-United-Kingdom

(Accessed On) 10 April 2019

 

The National Archives (2019) The Defamation Act [Online Image] 

Available at: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2013/26/contents/enacted

(Accessed On) 23 April 2019

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                                                        

This essay will analyse issues that relate to ownership and control of the media. It will also evaluate the Pluralist and Marxist perspective.

Cameron, Flowers, Hart, Peace, Renton, Watts and Wright (2008), say ownership and control of the mass media has slowly been reduced into fewer transitional corporations. Out of ten, 9 of the big companies are owned by American corporations. There is a concern that these large companies will slowly buy all the smaller ones all over the world and will weaken original cultures. There are a number of changes and developments that do occur with the growth of these huge media corporations.

Cameron et al (2008), continues to say Rupert Murdoch’s company News Corp has a vast array of interests within the media which include cinema, newspapers, publishing and broadcasting. This ownership of cross media is known as  horizontal integration, this then creates media conglomeration.  

Control (2007), writes that some media companies do also make investments in other non-media related products. An example of this is Disney, it has theme parks, hotels and sells merchandise. Many media conglomerates have also increased control over all aspects of their production processes in things such as the making of a film, then distributing them to their chain of cinemas, this is known as vertical integration.

Branston and Stafford (1996), discuss in the 1930s Warner Brothers did exactly this and distributed their own films within their cinemas, this was to create as much profit as possible. Some media corporations do not solely focus on media production and have diversified and expanded their interests this is known as lateral expansion.

 Chapman (2016), says with lateral expansion any losses which could arise in one area can be compensated by the profits of another area of the business. An example of this is the Virgin group owned by Richard Branson. Virgin is an example of a diversified corporation as it’s media interests include music, cinemas and film production. That said it also has banking and health services, runs an airline, train services and sells insurance.

Doyle (2002), cited in Chapman (2016), makes the suggestion that studying the media ownership and control is important for all in society so we all have a diverse provision of the media. This is so that all opinions can be heard. She makes the argument that if the ownership of the media condenses in our society then the danger of the abuse of power and influence will arise demonstrated by the elites. This will go completely un-noticed, then democracy and justice will ultimately suffer as a result.    

Chapman (2016), states the Pluralists believe that our modern day capitalist society is democratic. All parties whatever their position are given a platform within the media to  express their opinions to the electorates, resulting in the most favoured and persuasive in their arguments to gain them votes and ultimately put them in the position of power. This is why the mass media are seen by the pluralists as an essential part of their democratic process. This is because many individuals accquire their knowledge about political issues and processes through televison, the internet and newspapers.

Bown, Pountney, Maric and Meadows  (2016), write on the other hand the Marxist believe that the ruling class who own a large amount of the media actually use it to their own advantage. The media is their tool to maintain and govern power. To the Marxists the ruling class use the media to preserve and increase their wealth as well as manipulating and controlling the ideas of the working class. Through controlling the working class, the ruling class are at an advantage as they ensure that their position remains unchallenged. Marxists argue that the media is a powerful means of socializing which ensures that the working class are accepting of the ideology of capitalists. The media then form a false class consciousness whereby the working class are unaware of their exploited position.

Cameron et al (2008), say the Pluralists argue that there are a number of competitive and differing views that are expressed by many different owners of the media. The Pluralists believe that any competitiveness which is displayed between media companies is healthy and leads to a range of media which reflects the consumers actually want.

Whale (1997) cited in Bown et al (2016), says rather than society being dominated and ruled by the ruling class, there are a number of existing groups that do hold their own priorities and opinions.  They claim that there are a number of ways that the opinions of the public are fed back into the system, such as surveys. This then determines what sorts of programmes are available for viewing. Pluralists also state that the media is not controlled politically, unlike the view of the Marxists, so a range of views a freely given without any risk of being challenged. Importantly what is decided upon within the news is by the consumers of the media.   

Kapergobi (2015), says the Marxists criticise this idea, they say that people are brainwashed into the belief that that they hold any form of control of the media. Also that many individuals do not relate to what is in the media and have little control in the influence of its contents. They also believe that media ownership is not checked, unregulated and the illusion of being given a choice is owned by the same companies.

Haggar (2019), writes the Pluralists argue that companies that own a large proportion of the media offer choices in issues and topics. Any changes that occur within the media are reflecting what the public want. Individuals now have more ways of altering what they wish within the media through shaping its content by using contact bodies such as Ofcom.  

In conclusion, the Marxist theory is very much about the capitalist’s being in power and using this against lower classes, brainwashing them in their choices to how they respond to the media. The Pluralist theories are very much related to politics, democracy and using the media to their advantage to influence individuals. It seems both have similar opinions in the sense of trying to influence people. The media though are very much spread across the world and go further than politics and the power of capitalists. Yes, there are wealthy individuals who own the large media corporations,but they need the overall input of the general public to keep the media circulating. It is one large cycle, everyone’s input including the Marxists and Pluralists is needed to keep it going. If this did not happen then there would be no mass media.      

                      

 

Bown, D., Pountney, L., Maric, T. & Meadows, N., 2016. AQA Sociology. 2 ed. London: Hodder Education.

Branston, G. & Stafford, R., 1996. The media Students Book. London: Routledge.

Cameron, J. et al., 2008. AQA Sociology A2 Sociology. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes.

Chapman, S., Holborn, M., Moore, S. & Aiken, D., 2016. Sociology AQA A-level Year 2 Student Book. London: Harper Collins .

Control, M. O. a., 2007. Revision World. [Online] 
 Available at: Though we take voting in secret as a natural course of action now, there were many in the Nineteenth Century who did not support it as they felt that property owners and employers had a right to influence the way people voted.
 [Accessed 20 05 2019].

Haggar, R., 2019. Pluralist and Marxist Theories of Mass Media an Introduction. [Online] 
 Available at: https://www.earlhamsociologypages.co.uk/massmplumarx.htm
 [Accessed 22 05 2019].

Kapergobi, F., 2015. Marxist Theory of the Media or Theory of the Media by Marxists? Reconciling Adorno with Other Marxist Media Theorists. [Online] 
 Available at: https://www.academia.edu/21571704/Marxist_Theory_of_the_Media_or_Theory_of_the_Media_by_Marxists_Reconciling_Adorno_with_Other_Marxist_Media_Theorists
 [Accessed 22 05 2019].

 

 

A Short Article

This article will evaluate the impact of representations within the media of specific social groups. This can have a positive or negative affect upon these groups depending on how they have individually been portrayed.

 

The Impact on Age

 Newbold, Peace, Swain and Wright (2008), say that for many years it has been debated the effects of the media on social behaviour especially of that within children, who are the most vulnerable age group. The most concerning factor is that children may copy violence that is shown in the media. Many researchers do have the opinion that the media does have a direct impact upon childrens behaviour, whilst others feel that children now are media literate audience who can differentiate between real violence and fantasy viloence.

Cameron, Flowers, Hart, Peace, Renton, Watts and Wright (2008), write the opinion of the youth is usually constructed by adults, which generally is negative. In the media the young are reported as wearing hoodies, binge drinking and causing trouble. There is only ever a brief mention that the majority of young people are sensible and demonstrate good behaviour, this is because positive images are not worthy of being in the news. 

 

 

 

 Impact upon Gender

Newbold et al (2008), discusses that feminists for some time have not been happy with the way that women have been portrayed within the media. 

Gaye Tuchmann (1978) cited in Newbold et al (2008), makes the suggestion that women are symbolically annihilated in the media. This has resulted in young girls and women believing that their roles are less significant than that of mens. The media cause controversy by producing unrealistic images of the female body which has been linked to an increase in eating disorders. 

Cameron, Flowers, Hart, Peace, Renton, Watts and Wright (2008), argue against this by  saying since the 1980’s television within wth UK and US have change their portrayal of women significantly. TV now identifies many women as being strong, independent individuals aswell as showing single mothers and other female types.

Abercrombie (1999) cited in Cameron et al (2008), say that many soap story lines are now dominated with female figures being at the forefront. Feminists make the point that many female celebrities and presenters are young, sexy and glamerous backing up the idea that indeed sex does sell, which is there for the attention of men.  

O'Sullivan, Dutton and Rayner (1994), discuss that sociologists see the changes of a womans role as being a reflection of developments within society as there is now an increase in gender equality and the confidence amongst women. The overall message being though that women still have to look good for men. This is being backed up by advertisments in magazines, on television and bill-boards for cosmetic surgery, fashion and make-up. Women’s magazines were dominated by traditional stereotypical roles and concerns of women. The magazines focused on chores, cooking, romance and childcare.

Branston and Stafford (1996), say however in 1999 a report by a Policy Studies Institue found dramatic changes within womens literature which emphasised women enjoying theirselves, sex, relationships and their appearance. These issues now also appear on television programmes and radio shows presented by confident feisty females a new generation of women.

Cameron et al  (2008), writes there is no doubt that women are still not represented enough in positions of high power within the media. A study conducted found that all the top 20 firms in advertising were directed by men. Though women have progressed into managerial and directing roles within the media the higher job roles still elude them. 

 

Impact Upon Ethnicity

Newbold et al (2008), write that the media have received huge criticism for the portrayal of minority ethnic groups in a negative manner. Some minority groups are sometimes the victims of moral panic within the media, which is an exaggerated report of a particular action or a specific group, who are then seen as a major threat to the rest of the people in society. 

Van Djilks (1991) cited in Cameron et al (2008), says that the inner city riots of the 1980’s demonstrated how the media use race and criminal backgrounds of people to explain such an event even though many white young people were involved.  The Sun dismissed using sociological explinations for the riots. Djilks argues that the british media constantly flatters its readers saying that British people are kind tolerant but then calls people of other ethnicities as criminals, terrorists, social security scroungers, asylum seekers and abuse our hospitality. 

Hall (1989) cited in Cameron et al (2008), makes the argument that in the past there has been three different representations of black people on the television and cinema screens which wereas entertainers, natives and slaves. Ethnicity is generally portrayed through the white persons eye and grammar of race. The medias view of ethnicity is through the dominance of the white western world. 

O'Sullivan et al  (1994), disagrees by saying the appreciation of other ethnicites has now grown. Now there are major figures at the forefront of the arts, music and media aswell as more programmes and tv channels that are specifically for minority ethnicities. There are programmes such as The Kumars at No 42, Goodness Gracious Me and films like Bend it Like Beckham that are very popular with white audiences.   

 

 

Impact Upon Class

Burke (2014), writes the lower class in the media are represented as living in poor neighbourhoods with the majority of people living on benefits and not willing to work.

 The lower class are generally depicted as a statistic, their lives are portrayed as a result of their own choices.

Newbold et al (2008), says that British television programmes such as soaps are mostly based in working -class communities. People feel that they can relate to what is happening within these programmes. 

Barbara Ehrenreich (1989) cited in O'Sullivan et al (1994), argues that television rarely supports the interests of the working class. Current affairs programmes and the news often features professional experts that discuss working class issues, which really they shouldn’t critically comment on as they are not working class.

 

To conclude 

Looking at the specific social groups and how the media discusses them they are all seen from their point of view which is generally very stereotypical. Newspapers will produce articles that are from their point of view and add information that isnt factual so they are able to sell their news and make a profit. They do this regardless of the impact it has upon individuals lives. Television programmes and documentaries now are showing people in real life scenarios and how things actually are within the real world supporting individual groups. The media may have their opinion and sometimes have an impact upon the opinions of social groups but in actual fact it is only those specific groups that know the truth about their ways of life.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Branston, G. & Stafford, R., 1996. The Media Students Book. London: Routledge.

Burke, K., 2014. Media Portrayals of Individuals in the Lower Class. [Online] 
 Available at: https://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1162&context=comssp
 [Accessed 07 06 2019].

Cameron, J. et al., 2008. AQA Sociology A2 Sociology. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes.

Newbold, C. P. M., Swain, L. & Wright, M., 2008. AQA Sociology. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes.

O'Sullivan, T., Dutton, B. & Rayner, P., 1994. Studying The Media. London: Hodder Arnold.

 

 

 

Social Impact of Technological Developments in Mass Communication

O'Sullivan, Dutton and Rayner (1994), give the opinion that since the 1950s we have all lived through a period which is known as a ‘communication revolution’. This is a process of accelerating rates of cultural and social change which has added to the way new media technologies have developed. The development in these new technologies do play a part in 
structuring changes within old media.   

Branston and Stafford (1996),  writes in the 1980s the term ‘post modernism’ emerged which was seen as getting to grips with the new technological changes that were happening within the capitalist system. Now they have dramatically developed it is seen as the norm by people within society but these technological developments are altering the way that we as human beings communicate. 

Naveed (2012), writes that new technologies are changing the way that we now communicate. One particular way new technology is having an effect on mass communication is by giving the operator more control over the process of communication. Cable television channels give an audience member access to particular programmes which is considerably more than what is available on commercial television networks and public television. Recording systems on units such as those on Sky are also giving a user more control over mass communication. Once a programme has been recorded from a network it is possible to skip the adverts by fast-forwarding them on the remote control. This is called ‘zapping’ and has become a concern by the advertising industry. Another effect of new technology is a shift away from an “ideal type” of a central broadcaster or publishing organisation sending out the same content to large and stable audiences. In a way, this selectivity due to the development of new technology could generate a sort of balance that has lacked in mass communication, with both the audience and the broadcasters being equal in power. 

Neuman (2003) cited in Cameron, Flowers, Hart, Peace, Renton, Watts and Wright (2008), has the opinion that new media will actually in fact increase the sheer volume of  communication but in a sense will make the world smaller as internet based virtual communities are instantly connected with the means of personal communication. These new forms of communication will also give people the ability to communicate interactively and make way for the interconnection and overlapping of old media to make new. 

Acred (2014), points out that these virtual internet based communities come in the form of social media. Social media is a description of applications and services that encourage or create an internet based way of communicating. People interact with freedom discussing information about their lives and events using a mixture of multimedia, words, videos and pictures. People access this by using tools such as Facebook, Twitter, Blogger, YouTube, Flickr and many more. Social media is now a vital aspect of mass communication. It is one of the most prolific ways of people getting across what they want to say to anyone anywhere within the world. This is an ongoing trend that only seems to be on the up-rise with the estimate of half of all adults within the USA, UK, Spain and Russia using social media. Annually this grows with last year showing a 20% increase showing a quarter of the worlds overall population using Facebook daily.

BBC (2013), reports that social networking is a particular issue that does divide the opinions of many individuals.  There are people who think that it is an amazing tool, but others do worry that it can have an impact upon people's lives. Not all people in the 21st century think about the positive or negative effects of having access to social networking tools simple things can have an impact upon individuals either being good or bad.

Newbold, Peace, Swain and Wright (2008), discuss that there are particular views from the theorist groups on social media. The functionalists believe that through taking part in the use of such tools that we learn as individuals about acceptable standards of behaviour, which is a positive view. Whereas the Marxist have the view that social media and other networking sites only reinforce ideas that in the end always benefit the ruling classes, which is showing a negative as the working class are not gaining any benefits from social media. 

C.Cohen (2018)

Acred (2014), says that there are negatives and positives that do effect us as individuals when using social networking tools. Positives are that social media gives people the opportunity to express their selves freely, people can be creative in making their profiles, they enable people to become more computer literate, individuals can be who they want to be creating a whole new image of their selves, you are able to communicate with people around the world without leaving the comfort of your own home, social media can have a positive effect upon a person’s confidence with likes and nice comments on posts, you can choose what information you wish to share and you can stay in contact with family and friends whilst also making new ones. Negatives of social networking sites are people may not be showing their true identity this can and has lead to abduction cases and paedophilia, it is easy to like an online persona but dislike an individual in real life or vice versa, it is encouraging laziness leading to obesity and reducing real life interactions, the more comfortable people get with these sites the more likely they are to lose self control posting revealing and un-necessary posts, there is also the issues of cyber bullying, sexting and showing anger online which has lead to cases of severe mental health and even suicide.   

To conclude, there has been many changes over the years in the development of mass communication. This has lead to individuals having varying opinions about these developments whether they are negative or positive. No matter the opinions on the development’s and the tools they have brought with them times have changed and people have to do so with them. If the tools such as Facebook and Twitter are monitored then they can be used correctly and benefit everyone. Just because these tools now exist doesn’t mean that old ways of communicating will disappear they all can be incorporated to make the way we communicate easier for all.   

 

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