Plenty of room for growth and personality throughout life, spanned a lifetime, unlike Freud who only believed it happened throughout childhood (Kahnacademymedicine, 2017).

Crises occur at particular stages of development involving individuals and society (Kahnacademymedicine, 2017).

 Successful completion of all 8 stages result in a healthy personality, failure would result in a more unhealthy personality in sense of self (Kahnacademymedicine, 2017). 

Stages of Psychosocial Development

-Stage 1 occurs between Infant to 18 months- Trust vs. Mistrust
Virtue- hope 

Negative outcome- Fear, suspicion

-Stage 2 occurs between 18 months to three years- Autonomy Vs. Shame and Doubt
Virtue- will

Negative outcome- shame 

-Stage 3 occurs between three years to five years old- Initiative vs. Guilt
Virtue- purpose

Negative outcome- inadequacy

-Stage 4 occurs between six years to twelve years- Industry vs Inferiority
Teachers take an important role at this stage. Child will gain greater self-esteem and develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments by demonstrating competency in valued areas. 

Virtue- competence

Negative outcome- inferiority

-Stage 5 occurs between the ages of twelve years and 18 years- Identity vs. Role Confusion

Virtue- fidelity

Negative outcome- rebellion 

-Stage 6 occurs between the ages of 18-40 years- Intimacy Vs. Isolation
Virtue- love

Negative outcome- isolation 

-Stage 7 occurs between the ages of 40-65 years-  Generality vs. Stagnation

Virtue- care 

Negative outcome- unproductive 

-Stage 8- occurs between the ages of 65 and older- Ego Integrity Vs. Despair
Virtue- wisdom 

Negative outcome- dissatisfaction
(Kahnacademymedicine, 2017) 

Childrens’ understandings of    rules

Childrens’ understanding of moral responsibility

Childrens’ understandings of justice 
(McLeod, 2015)

Piaget discovered that ideas about rules, moral responsibility, justice/punishment changed as children got older, and thus there were also stages to moral development (McLeod, 2015).

Kohlberg acquired Piaget’s storytelling technique involving moral dilemmas, most popular being Heinz Dilemma (McLeod, 2013).

Stages included:

Level One- Pre-Conventional Morality (nine and younger)

Level Two- Conventional Morality (most adolescents and adults)

Moral Standards of valued adult role models are internalized.

People at this stage are aware of the wider rules of society, and thus the rules are upheld to avoid guilt.  

Level Three- Post-Conventional Morality (10-15% of people are capable of this thinking.)

Prior to Piaget’s work, children were thought to think similar to adults until he showed that the thought process was completely different (McLeod, 2018b). 

Three components to Cognitive --
-Theory

-Schemas

-Adaptation Process

Stages of Cognitive Development:

Sensorimotor (birth to age two)
Preoperational (age two to seven)

Concrete operational (age seven to 11)

Formal operational (age 11 to adolescence and adulthood)

-People at this age develop the ability to think about abstract concepts
(McLeod, 2018b).

According to Vygotsky, emphasized that cognitive development stemmed from social interaction (McLeod, 2018a).

Learning precedes development (Burris, 2009). 

Development is enhanced when confronted with new tasks in the Zone of Proximal Development, where learning takes place (Burris, 2009). 

Skinner believed that the mind only learned through observable behavior (McLeod, 2018c).

Looking at the causes of an action and consequence were the best way to understand behavior, according to Skinner (McLeod, 2018c).

-Behavior is learned through observational learning

-Children observe the people around them and may imitate those behaviors later in life (McLeod, 2016).  

Mediating processes occur between stimuli and responses (McLeod, 2016).

Mediational processes- the consideration of behavior, occur before imitating behavior (McLeod, 2016).

Language was a consequence of cognitive development (McLeod, 2012).

Via Behavior Reinforcement, children learned to associate words with meanings (Lemetyinen, 2012). 

Chomsky believed that children were born with a Language Acquisition Device, the biological basis to universal grammar (Clause, n.d.).

Iconic (one to six years)

Symbolic (seven years onward)

The way in which knowledge is              stored and encoded in memory.

This area develops last and is where information is stored in the form of a symbol, such as language (McLeod, 2012). 

Bruner believed that language provided for a flexible cognition (McLeod, 2012).

Maslow believed that behavior was driven by needs (Alanis Business Academy, 2012). 

Hierarchy of Needs included:
Physiological (Basic, Deficiency Needs)

Safety (Basic, Deficiency Needs)

Love and Belonging (Psychological, Deficiency Needs)

Esteem (Psychological, Deficiency Needs)

Self-Actualization (Self-Fulfillment, Growth/Being Needs) 

(Alanis Business Academy, 2012)

Needs lower in hierarchy must be satisfied before attending to the needs higher in the hierarchy (Alanis Business Academy, 2012).

People may move between the hierarchy of different types of needs, meaning all needs do not need to be satisfied before moving between the hierarchy (Alanis Business Academy, 2012).

Bronfenbrenner believed that a child interacts with various ecosystems, all which interact and influence each other in every aspect of the child’s life (Psychology Note HQ, 2013). 

The Bronfenbrenner Model:

Microsystem (Immediate Environment)
Mesosystem (Connections)

Exosystem (Indirect Environment)

Macrosystem (Social and Cultural Values)

Chronosystem (Changes over time)

(Psychology Note HQ, 2013)

Studying the different systems simultaneously demonstrate the interrelated influences on a child’s development (Psychology Note HQ, 2013).