Controlled processing characterizes new skill learning; it is relatively slow, requires attention, and is limited by short- term memory constraints.  

Over time, and through practice and training, a skill can come to be performed rapidly and with little effort, and automatic processing takes over. 

Declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge 

-Declarative knowledge consists of what the learner explicitly knows, as knowing the grammar rule that you need to add an “s” to a noun to form the plural in English.  

-Procedural knowledge is knowing how to do something without having conscious awareness, as being able to produce L2 sentences without conscious reflection on what needs to be done first, second, etc., and is thought to underlie automatic performance. 

Recasts (rephrasing an incorrect utterance correctly as when a learner says “I buy sandwich” and the instructor follows up with “Oh, you bought a sandwich”), self-repetition, and paraphrasing. 

Noticing: it states that what learners notice in the input is what becomes intake for learning.  

*intake: the part of the input that the learner notices. 

Implicit learning: Learning without awareness of what is being learned.  

Explicit learning: Learning with explicit awareness of what is being learned. 

Connectionism: attempts to explain L2 learning without reference to an innate language faculty as formulated by those in the UG school of thought. In this view, the role of internal processing is emphasized, proposing that exposure to linguistic input is crucial in allowing generalizations to emerge 

Cognitive approaches provide powerful insights into how learners process language, but they downplay the fundamentally social nature of language use and learning. 

Including IMMERSION and CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION, has been widely implemented, and Krashen's ideas have been a source of ideas far research in second language acquisition. 

• The Interaction Hypothesis (Michael Long) 

It emphasizes the important role of conversational interaction in second language acquisition. This view suggests that the modifications occurring during interactions between conversational partners contribute to comprehension, in particular when communication breaks down. 

• Comprehensible Output Hypothesis (Merrill Swain) 

Proposed that having to produce the L2 encourages the learner to attend to the language and thereby improve proficiency. 

This hypothesis suggests that having to communicate in the target language actually contributes to improvement: “producing the target language may be the trigger that forces the learner to pay attention to the means of expression needed in order to successfully convey his or her own intended meaning” 

• The Noticing Hypothesis (Richard Schmidt) 

It states that what learners notice in the input is what becomes intake for learning. 

• Input processing (Bill VanPatten) 

Model proposed by VanPatten on how learners make form-meaning connections: learners have limited processing capacity so give priority to meaning. 

The origins of the modern Universal Grammar framework emerged in the 1960s by the hand of Noam Chomsky who proposed the Theory of Universal Grammar to explain that some grammatical structures and rules are innate to all human languages. In other words, Chomsky states that language is part of the human genetic endowment. Lydia White (2003), a linguistic expert in second language acquisition and Flynn (1996), argue that thanks to Universal Grammar (UG) is easier for children at younger ages to adopt and understand the language of their environment while they are developing their language acquisition. However, other experts such as Robert Bley-Vroman (1983) and Jacquelyn Schachter (1990) hold that UG may not be helpful to acquire a second language once that learners have overcome the critical period.  

The disciplines that have had an impact on the development of the Universal Grammar are: 

•  Structural linguistics: By emphasizing underlying rules over surface patterns, UG evolved from the structuralist school but also departed from it. 

• Philosophy of mind: Chomsky’s ideas were impacted by the notion of innate structures and mental modules. 

• Research on Second Language Acquisition (SLA): Universal Grammar emerged as a key theoretical framework that directs investigations into adult language acquisition. 

• Declarative and procedural knowledge: In one hand, when language learning, declarative knowledge is the explicit knowledge of rules, grammar and vocabulary -facts and information the “what”-. Declarative knowledge is often learnt through grammar lessons or vocabulary lists. This means that it is a conscious and verbalizable learning that is stored as factual memory. In the other hand, procedural knowledge is the ability to use the language in a fluent and automatic way – “how” we do things-.  It is usually unconscious and difficult to verbalize and the way to develop it is through practice and experience. It prepares us for automaticity.  

• Noticing: The core idea of the Noticing Hypothesis of Richard Smidt (1990) is that learners must actively recognize the features of the language in the input to integrate it into their developing interlanguage system. Noticing is synonymous of awareness, because it is necessary to register features in our attention to be able to learn them –if learners notice what they are doing wrong when learning L2 they will stary paying attention and may eventually produce it correctly next time-.  

• Implicit and explicit learning: In one hand, implicit learning often leads to procedural knowledge, since it is automatic and connected to fluent use. This is to say, that implicit learning happens without being consciously aware of what is learnt, because it is not verbalized or focused on rules. It happens through exposure and use of L2. In the other hand, explicit learning often leads to declarative knowledge, since all it is about is knowing about the language and paying concious attention to what is being learnt. We do understand that explicit learning is intentional and based on rules. It is clearly associated with school instruction, since all what it is about is verbalizing the rules we study.  

• Connectionism: Connectionism in the context of language learning is a theory rooted in cognitive science and neural networks, because our mind works as a network of interconnected units that strengths or weaks their connections based on experience. Connectionism believes that learning happens through exposure and pattern detection, so the more learners are exposed to structures, sounds or words the more they learn because their mental connections between concepts will become stronger and more automatic.  

• Focus on Input over output: According to UG, students can understand new structures even in the absence of direct instruction because they have already acquired some of them. Thus, giving students rich and structured input takes precedence over teaching them rote rules. 

 Key figures included B.F. Skinner, a psychologist whose behaviorist theories emphasized learning through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement, Charles Fries and Robert Lado, who applied these ideas to language teaching through the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH). 

The development of behaviorism was strongly influenced by psychology and applied linguistics focused on second language teaching.

• Learning = habit formation through imitation, practice, reinforcement. 

• L2 learning is seen as replacing old L1 habits with new L2 habits 

• Processes involved: 

• Stimulus → Response → Reinforcement (Skinner). 

• Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH): predicts errors based on similarities/differences between L1 & L2. 

• Central concepts: 

• Habit formation, L1 interference, error prediction. 

• Failure of Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) 

• Ignoring learner´s creative use of language:  

• Lack of Attention to Developmental Sequences:  

• Limited View of Errors: Neglect of Meaning and Communication

• Repetition drills, substitution drills, pattern practice. 

• Memorization of dialogues. 

• Focus on error prevention and immediate correction. 

• Grammar -Translation Rejection (indirect influence) 

• Priority given to speaking and listening over reading and writing. 

• The use of Audiolingual Method  

Reinforced the stimulus–response–reinforcement cycle through mechanical practice. 

• Students practiced pronunciation and drills with audio recordings. 

• Teacher-Centered Instruction 

• Teacher gives models, students imitate. 

• Frequent correction to avoid formation of “bad habits.” 

Based on the writings of Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934), Lantolf, Poehner, William Dunn 

Disciplines influencing its development: social constructivism, psychology, linguistics 

Processes involved: “mediation” (connect with others and with the physical world), “internalization” (process by which individuals interiorize knowledge acquired through their social interactions); collaborate and interact with speakers of the L2 who are more knowledgeable. 

Concepts that are central: zone of proximal development (ZPD) (difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help); 

scaffolding (role of teachers and others in supporting the learner’s development and providing support structures to get to that next stage or level) (also Peer-to-peer scaffolding); collaborative dialogue 

Use of metaphors to represent an invisible reality (ability of human learners to acquire language within a variety of social environments).

Based on indirect evidence.

Based on analysis of the researchers’ intuitions about language. 

Lack of agreement among the experts. 

More opportunities for learners to engage in verbal production.

Immersive classrooms.

Anything that is collaborative: pair or group work, task-based or project based learning.