Our memories are records of past experiences that guide our decisions and actions (Psychology Today, n.d.). These records include both the facts and personal moments the brain can actively recall, often without conscious thought. Other memories need more time or connections to be recalled.

Memory serves as both a temporary storage space for new information and as a long-term system for what we have learned over time. The brain stores memories in different locations of the brain, according to sensory details (Harvard Health Publishing, n.d.). Beyond helping us understand and predict the world around us, memory plays a key role in shaping our identity and life story, making possible meaningful experiences like nostalgia (Psychology Today, n.d.).

The brain begins forming a memory through a process called encoding (Sousa, 2023). Sensory information activates specific neurons, and regions like the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex work together to turn the input into meaningful data. The next step involves synaptic plasticity, where connections between neurons are strengthened through repeated activation, or repetition. Teachers should plan for rehearsal of new information so these connections can be strengthened and memories can be formed. The brain undergoes neurogenesis in the hippocampus, where new neurons are generated (Sousa, 2023). Once the memory is encoded and stored, the brain can reactivate the same pattern to recall the information. Together, these biological mechanisms create the foundation for learning, remembering, and applying information.

References

Harvard Health Publishing. (n.d.). Memory. Harvard Medical School. https://www.health.harvard.edu/topics/memory

Psychology Today. (n.d.). Memory. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/memory

Sousa, D.A. (2022). How the brain learns (6th ed.). Corwin.

Children have limited amounts of short-term memory, and even within children of the same age there can be a disparity of short-term memory capacity (DiTullio, 2021). Teachers can adjust for their students accordingly and not teach them too much new information at once. Some students could benefit from interventions specifically targeted toward working on their short-term memories.

The short-term memory works best when it does not experience too much interruption (Lewandowsky, Geiger, & Oberauer, 2008). Although researchers previously thought that memories just fade over time, it is now evident that interference causes information to disappear from short-term memory (Lewandowsky et al., 2008). Schools can help students by limiting announcements and schedule changes that interrupt class. Teachers can help students by following consistent routines that do not require interruptions for giving directions.

References

DiTullio, G. (2021, September 9). How to engage students’ memory processes to improve learning. Edutopia. https://www.edutopia.org/article/how-engage-students-memory-processes-improve-learning

Harvard Health Publishing. (n.d.). Memory. Harvard Medical School. https://www.health.harvard.edu/topics/memory

Lewandowsky S, Geiger SM, & Oberauer K. (2008). Interference-based forgetting in verbal short-term memory. Journal of Memory & Language, 59(2), 200–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2008.04.004

Psychology Today. (n.d.). Types of memory. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/memory/types-of-memory

Long-term memory holds the experiences and information that shape a person’s identity. It includes not only facts and past events but also learned skills and routines, such as typing or dancing. While these memories can last a long time, they are also flexible and can shift over time (Harvard Health Publishing, 2022).

Teachers can use the prior knowledge of the students and build on those memories to learn more difficult concepts. Establishing a baseline of knowledge at the beginning of the year or unit is helpful for teachers to plan lessons that will build students’ long-term memories.

References

DiTullio, G. (2021, September 9). How to engage students’ memory processes to improve learning. Edutopia. https://www.edutopia.org/article/how-engage-students-memory-processes-improve-learning

Harvard Health Publishing. (2022, March 21). Memory. Harvard Medical School. https://www.health.harvard.edu/topics/memory

Sensory memory is crucial for transforming sensory data into meaningful experiences (Cherry, 2023). Without sensory memory, it would be difficult to focus on what is important and filter out distractions.

Teachers can help students learn by keeping calm classrooms so there are fewer distractions that the sensory memory needs to filter and it is easier for students to concentrate on new information in a lesson, thus increasing the odds of the information being stored long-term.

Reference

Cherry, K. (2023, September 13). Sensory memory in psychology: Types and experiments. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-sensory-memory-2795352

Beyond the emotions of learning, students must be able to retain new information. The capacity of short-term storage in the brain is related to the age of the child (DiTullio, 2021). Younger children have less room to store memories short-term. Brains must continually reprocess information, which is called rehearsal (Sousa, 2022). During rehearsal, the learner must be able to attach both sense and meaning to the new information for it to be stored in the memory. Rehearsal by the learner can either be rote, when information needs to be memorized exactly as learned, or elaborative, when data must be connected to older information and comprehended and not just memorized. Younger students need more rehearsal since their memories can hold less information in short-term storage (DiTullio, 2021).

The “primary-recency effect” refers to the sensation of the brain best recalling items first and last learned, while items in the middle of a list might be forgotten. Teachers can capitalize on this knowledge by presenting new correct information at the beginning of the lesson, giving time for the student to process and practice during downtime, and then more instructional time during the end of the lesson (Sousa, 2022).

Research has also shown that making connections between subjects, often referred to as “interleaving,” helps memories move from short-term to long-term memory (DiTullio, 2021). For students unable to make these connections themselves, teachers should model their thinking until students understand the process enough to interleave on their own.

References

DiTullio, G. (2021, September 9). How to engage students’ memory processes to improve learning. Edutopia. https://www.edutopia.org/article/how-engage-students-memory-processes-improve-learning

Sousa, D.A. (2022). How the brain learns (6th ed.). Corwin.

Trauma can also be psychological, such as abuse, neglect, accidents, or disasters. Ugwuanyi and Formella (2024) found that in patients who experienced this sort of trauma, their memory processes can be either fragmented or disrupted and flashbacks can also be experienced. Trauma can negatively affect attention, problem-solving, and concentration.

Students who have lived through trauma might have more trouble concentrating and storing information in their memory. However, interventions such as counseling and cognitive therapy can help improve memory and cognitive functioning (Ugwuanyi & Formella, 2024).

References

Johns Hopkins Medicine. (n.d.). Traumatic brain injury. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/traumatic-brain-injury

Ugwuanyi, B. C., & Formella, Z. (2024). Exploring the impact of trauma on memory and cognitive functioning: Implications for therapeutic interventions. International Journal of Health and Psychological Research, 9(3), 66–82. https://iiardjournals.org/get/IJHPR/VOL.%209%20NO.%203%202024/EXPLORING%20THE%20IMPACT%2066-82.pdf

Another strategy that enhances transfer and understanding is elaborative encoding, sometimes referred to as "interleaving," which encourages students to connect new content to prior knowledge (McDaniel, 2023). This technique can be achieved by prompting students to explain concepts in their own words, make comparisons, or apply ideas to real-life situations. For example, when learning about counting money, teachers can set up a class store and students can count the correct money to make purchases. Studies suggest that combining elaborative encoding with retrieval practice, especially when done sequentially, can significantly improve learning outcomes (McDaniel, 2023). For students who have experienced trauma, these connections between lessons are vital. Those students might need more coaching to make the connections but the efforts will pay off through strengthened recall of information.

References

Carpenter, S. K., Cepeda, N. J., Rohrer, D., Kang, S. H. K., & Pashler, H. (2012). Using spacing to enhance diverse forms of learning: Review of recent research and implications for instruction. Educational Psychology Review, 24, 369–378. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED536925.pdf

McDaniel, M. A. (2023). Combining retrieval practice with elaborative encoding: Complementary or redundant? Educational Psychology Review, 35, Article 75. https://eds-p-ebscohost-com.lopes.idm.oclc.org/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=4&sid=b16dab72-add5-4734-b681-49e7bc7bab5a%40redis

Moreira, B. F. T., Pinto, T. S. S., Starling, D. S. V., & Jaeger, A. (2019). Retrieval practice in classroom settings: A review of applied research. Frontiers in Education, 4, Article 5. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2019.00005/full