Destructive plate boundary
A destructive plate boundary is sometimes called a convergent or tensional plate margin. This occurs when oceanic and continental plates move together. The oceanic plate is forced under the lighter continental plate. Friction causes melting of the oceanic plate and may trigger earthquakes. Magma rises up through cracks and erupts onto the surface.

Friction is eventually overcome and the plates slip past in a sudden movement. The shockwaves created produce an earthquake

The strength, or magnitude, of an earthquake is measured using the Richter scale. The Richter scale is numbered 0-10 with 10 being the greatest strength or magnitude.

A sign that a tsunami is approaching a coast is water retreating. Shortly after this happens. the waves reach the shore. This is actually the trough of the wave following behind.

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2. At which plate margins do you find earthquakes?

3. What is the point in the Earth's crust where the earthquake originates known as?

4. What is the point on the Earth's surface directly above where the earthquake originates?

5. What piece of equipment measures earthquakes?

6. What is an example of a short-term response?

7. What is earthquake prediction?

8. How do people prepare for earthquakes?

The slave trade began with Portuguese (and some Spanish) traders, taking mainly West African (but some Central African) slaves to the American colonies they had conquered in the 15th century. British sailors became involved in the trade in the 16th century and their involvement increased in the 18th century when the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) gave them the right to sell slaves in the Spanish Empire. The slave trade made a great deal of profit for those who sold and exchanged slaves. Therefore, they often ignored the fact it was inhuman and unfair.

At least 12 million Africans were taken to the Americas as slaves between 1532 and 1832 and at least a third of them in British ships.

After 1700, the numbers of slaves being transported increased greatly. Perhaps 8.5 million Africans were taken as slaves to the Americas.

A British slave ship set off from Liverpool, Glasgow or Bristol, carrying trade goods and sailed to West Africa.

The slave ship then sailed across the Atlantic to the West Indies – this leg of the voyage was called the 'Middle Passage'.

Understanding how the water cycle operates is key to understanding how rivers work. The water cycle is also known as the hydrological cycle. It is called a cycle because water continuously moves around the system. Rivers are part of this cycle. The illustration below shows how water changes state through the cycle. It can be a liquid, a vapour or a solid.

How does the water cycle work?

When the precipitation reaches the surface, some falls directly into the sea but other water falls on land:

The major stores of water are the ocean, ice caps, land and the atmosphere. The movement of water between these stores is called transfers.

Key words:
condensation
A change of state in which gas becomes liquid by cooling.

dense
Crowded closely together.

hydrological cycle
The continual movement of water between the rivers, oceans, atmosphere and land.

impermeable
A substance which fluids are unable to pass through.

intercept
To interrupt the movement of something, eg water is intercepted by the leaves of trees when it rains.

percolation
When water moves downwards through the soil.

precipitation
Moisture that falls from the air to the ground. Includes rain, snow, hail, sleet, drizzle, fog and mist.

saturated
Unable to contain any more liquid.

A river basin or drainage basin is an area of land drained by a river and its tributaries. The edge of the drainage basin is known as the watershed. This can be compared to a sink or basin, which catches the water falling into it. The water travels towards the centre and leaves the sink through a plug hole. In a similar way, the water flowing through the river will eventually leave the river basin through its mouth and enter the sea or a lake.

Key words:
mouth

The place where a river meets the sea.

river basin

The area drained by a river.

tributary
A small river that joins the main river channel.

watershed
The place that divides two river basins.

2. What process occurs when water changes from a gas to a liquid?

3. What is transpiration?

4. Which type of flow is also called a river?

5. What does the process of interception do?

6. Which of these is a store within the water cycle?

7. What is a river basin?

8. What is the watershed?

9. What is the start of a river called?

10. Where are you likely to find a delta?

Middle course river features include wider, shallower valleys, meanders, and oxbow lakes.

Lower course river features include wide flat-bottomed valleys, floodplains and deltas.


As the river moves through the upper course, it cuts downwards. The gradient here is steep and the river channel is narrow. Vertical erosion in this highland part of the river helps to create steep-sided V-shaped valleys, interlocking spurs, rapids, waterfalls and gorges.

Upper course river features👇👇

In the middle course the river has more energy and a high volume of water. The gradient here is gentle and lateral (sideways) erosion has widened the river channel. The river channel has also deepened. A larger river channel means there is less friction, so the water flows faster:

The river now has a wide floodplain. A floodplain is the area around a river that is covered in times of flood. A floodplain is a very fertile area due to the rich alluvium deposited by floodwaters. This makes floodplains a good place for agriculture. A build up of alluvium on the banks of a river can create levees, which raise the river bank.

Deltas are found at the mouth of large rivers - for example, the Mississippi. A delta is formed when the river deposits its material faster than the sea can remove it. There are three main types of delta, named after the shape they create.

Arcuate or fan-shaped - the land around the river mouth arches out into the sea and the river splits many times on the way to the sea, creating a fan effect.

Key words
alluvium
The sediment deposited by rivers. Also known as silt.

levee
Ridges or banks formed by deposits of alluvium left behind by the periodic flooding of rivers. Can also be artificially constructed banks or walls.

2. Which feature is created as a waterfall retreats?

3. How many courses are rivers usually divided into?

4. V-shaped valleys, interlocking spurs and waterfalls are usually found in which part of a river?

5. Which one of these features do you associate with the lower course of a river?

6. What is formed where a river in its upper course winds around hard rock forming a series of tapering ridges?

7. When a river runs over alternating layers of hard and soft rock what is created?

8. What features are created when a river erodes laterally creating large sweeping bends in the river channel?

9. When alluvium (silt) builds up on the banks of a river, what are formed?

Weather describes the day-to-day conditions of the atmosphere. Weather can change quickly - one day it can be dry and sunny and the next day it may rain.

Climate describes average weather conditions over longer periods and over large areas.

The table below shows the world climatic zones.

Temperature is measured in Celsius (°C) using a thermometer. The thermometer must be shaded from direct sunlight and should have air circulating around it. The thermometers can be placed in a Stevenson Screen. This is a wooden box with slatted sides, a sloping roof and legs to keep the screen off the ground. It is painted white to reflect the sun.

Precipitation is measured using a rain gauge. This is a funnel inside a graduated container. The depth of the rain in millimetres can be read from the side of the container.

Wind direction is reported by the direction it is blowing from, according to the compass. Wind blowing from the west is travelling eastwards so is called a westerly wind, not an easterly wind.

Wind speed can be measured using an anemometer.

Cloud cover is measured in units called oktas. Each okta represents one eighth of the sky covered by cloud.

Air pressure. Air is light but because there is so much of it above us, it exerts a pressure on us. Air pressure is measured by a barometer. The units used are millibars. The greater the reading, the higher the pressure.

A high-pressure system is called an anticyclone. Air falls in an anticyclone so no clouds are formed. In summer, high pressure usually results in clear skies, gentle breezes and fine weather. In winter high pressure leads to clear skies and colder conditions.

An area of low pressure is called a depression. Air rises in a depression so clouds and rainfall are formed. Depressions therefore bring unsettled weather and rain. Winds are normally stronger. They usually form over the Atlantic Ocean and are carried across Britain by westerly winds.

Key words
anemometer
A device for measuring wind speed.

anticyclone
High-pressure systems, giving clear skies and gentle wind.

atmospheric condition
The state of the air around us, eg temperature, wind speed, cloud cover and humidity levels.

climate
Average weather conditions over longer periods and over large areas.

depression
In meteorological terms, a depression is an area of low air pressure.

graduated container
An object that holds fluids with a measuring scale up the side. These may be used for measuring rainfall amounts.

okta
A unit used to express the extent of cloud cover. It is equal to one-eighth of the area of the sky.

precipitation
Moisture that falls from the air to the ground. Includes rain, snow, hail, sleet, drizzle, fog and mist.

thermometer
An instrument used to measure temperature.

weather
The day-to-day condition of the atmosphere.

Clouds are categorised according to height and shape. The different categories of clouds are then given names based on Latin words, e.g. nimbus clouds bring rain, stratus clouds appear as layers.

Stratus: These are layered clouds that are low, grey and shapeless and usually are like a blanket of cloud over an area. They can bring some drizzle and rain.

Cumulus: These are clouds that move quite quickly. They are white and fluffy and look like cotton wool. They can bring rain showers – especially when the base is grey.

Cumulonimbus: These are much deeper clouds that climb high into the atmosphere. They often contain a lot of heavy rain and are associated with thunder and lightning storms.

Cirrus: These are very high clouds that are wispy and made up from ice crystals.

2.What is precipitation?

3.What is the instrument used to measure wind speed?

4.What is the instrument used to measure air pressure?

5.The clouds which are found low in the sky and are found grey and shapeless are called...

A cumulonimbus cloud can grow more than eleven miles high into the sky. The top of the cloud sometimes gets blown by strong winds and has a flat top, like a table. That flat top is called an anvil, because it looks like the flat metal block called an anvil that's used to hammer metal.

Tropical rainforests have distinct characteristics that support a wide variety of different species. This means that they have a high biodiversity. The biotic or living components of the ecosystem and the abiotic or non-living components of the ecosystem depend on one another - a change in one leads to a change in the other.

A tropical rainforest is made up of the following layers:

The following adaptations allow plants to survive in the conditions of the rainforest.

Drip tips - plants have leaves with pointy tips. This allows water to run off the leaves quickly without damaging or breaking them.

Buttress roots - large roots have ridges which create a large surface area that help to support large trees.

Epiphytes - these are plants which live on the branches of trees high up in the canopy. They get their nutrients from the air and water, not from the soil.

Many animals have adapted to the unique conditions of the tropical rainforests.

The sloth uses camouflage and moves very slowly to make it difficult for predators to spot.

The spider monkey has long, strong limbs to help it to climb through the rainforest trees.

The flying frog has fully webbed hands and feet, and a flap of loose skin that stretches between its limbs, which allows it to glide from plant to plant.

The toucan has a long, large bill to allow it to reach and cut fruit from branches that are too weak to support its weight.

Glossary
abiotic
Non-living elements of an ecosystem, such as climate, temperature, water, and soil type.

arable farming
When crops are grown.

biodiversity
The range of animals and plants in a given area.

biotic
Living elements of an ecosystem, such as plants and animals.

camouflage

An ability to blend in with a background.

predators
Animals that catch and eat other animals.

species
A type of organism that is the basic unit of classification. Individuals of different species are not able to interbreed successfully.

sustainable
An activity which does not consume or destroy resources or the environment

2. What is the average daily temperature in a tropical rainforest?

3. What colour is the soil in the rainforest?

4. How many layers make up a tropical rainforest?

5. Where do epiphytes get their nutrients from?

6. Where do the leaves and flowers of the lianas grow?

Historians disagree about what 'caused' the First World War, but most trace it in some degree to the growing power of Germany. The 'balance of power' between the nations of Europe became unstable. This led them to form military alliances:

After the murder of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand in June 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. The countries of Europe found that the alliances they had formed dragged them into war.

Alliances
☆ Russian had an agreement to support Serbia should it go to war.
☆ Germany had an agreement to support Austris-Hungary should it go to war.
☆ Britian and France had an agreement to support Russia.
☆ This meant countries were drawn into the war.

Empires
Britain had a big empire that Germany was jealous of, causing tension.
Many European countries were competing to make their empire bigger. 

Erosion involves the wearing away of rock and soil found along the river bed and banks. Erosion also involves the breaking down of the rock particles being carried downstream by the river.

Rivers pick up and carry material as they flow downstream.

Rivers need energy to transport material, and levels of energy change as the river moves from source to mouth.

When a river loses energy, it will drop or deposit some of the material it is carrying.

2. When soluble particles are dissolved into the river it is called:

3. Which process involves small pebbles and stones being bounced along the river bed?

4. Which process involves large boulders and rocks being rolled along the river bed?

5. Which of the following is NOT a type of river erosion?

6. When rocks and pebbles being carried by the river knock together and are broken down to form smaller particles, this is called:

7. When the force of the water being carried by the river wears away the bed and banks, this is called:

8. Which of the following statements about deposition is NOT correct?

9. Erosion is vertical or downwards:

10. A wide river channel is formed: