1.One court case was the Bristol-Myers Squibb Company and Celgene Corporation, In the Matter of (Administrative)

2.The second court case was the DTE Energy Company, In the Matter of (Administrative)

3.The third court case was the Traffic Jam Events, LLC, In the Matter of (Administrative)

What led up to the creation: SBA was founded by Congress in order to maintain the ensure of the stability and growth of the American economy by supporting small businesses nationwide.


What is the purpose: The SBA aids Americans in creating, funding, and growing their business.


How it affects businesses: The SBA is a very helpful resource to business owners and employers who are struggling to keep their small business afloat or are confused on how to start their company. The SBA has several loan programs to offer financial aid to businesses. The SBA has also helped businesses through times of crisis through disaster assistance like the COVID-19 pandemic and storm relief. The administration additionally offers training and classes to educate business owners on how to grow their enterprise successfully. Businesses can also apply for grants through the SBA if they want to further grow their business.


How it affects employees: As mentioned above, the SBA offers face-to-face training and assistance across the US. In more than 1,800 locations, the administration has free counseling and low-cost training to employees who are in need of some help.


How it affects consumers: The SBA helps small businesses thrive which in turn benefits the consumers of those businesses who buy the goods and services, and will ensure that businesses are giving consumers the quality that they paid for.


Revisions: The SBA routinely makes key changes to its program to tailor it to the needs of businesses and consumers. Recently, the SBA has changed through the COVID-19 pandemic by offering new loan programs and grants to businesses in risk of closure. The SBA is working with the White House to provide these loans alongside the stimulus packages.


Links to three (3) court cases that have involved this agency, policy, law, or regulation:
1.
https://www.justice.gov/oip/lawrence-jr-v-sba-no-20-11637-2021-wl-4398328-ed-mich-sept-27-2021-goldsmith-j
2. https://www.clearinghouse.net/detail.php?id=17618
3.
https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/seattle-doctor-found-guilty-fraudulently-obtaining-millions-dollars-covid-19-relief-programs


Sources (links):
https://www.sba.gov/about-sba/organization 

https://www.debt.org/small-business/sba/ 

https://www.bradley.com/insights/publications/2020/03/sba-disaster-relief-loans-mitigating-the-risk-of-after-the-fact-enforcement-actions 

https://www.greenboxcapital.com/resources/small-business-sba-loans-pros-cons/ 

https://www.sba.gov/sites/default/files/files/SBDC%202010-11%20NATIONAL%20Impact%20Study%20(Revised).pdf 

https://www.mckinneyonline.com/colleges/collin-college-small-businessdevelopment-center-helps-entrepreneurs/ 

https://collinsbdc.com/about-us/ 

https://localprofile.com/2020/06/03/during-the-covid-19-pandemic-independently-owned-restaurants-stand-the-greatest-chance-of-collapse/ 

https://www.athensreview.com/news/sba-tops-50m-in-disaster-assistance-loans-for-texas-severe-winter-storms/article_ea9f821c-8e6f-11eb-b18a-9f3387be32f6.html 

https://www.sba.gov/offices/headquarters/wbo/success-stories/4147 

https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/texas-man-sentenced-more-nine-years-covid-19-fraud-and-money-laundering-scheme 

What is the purpose: Congress passed the CAN-SPAM Act in 2003 to address the problem of unwanted commercial electronic mail messages. The CAN-SPAM Act requires the Federal Communications Commission to issue rules with regard to commercial e-mail and some text messages sent to wireless devices such as cell phones—not email in general. It stands for “Controlling the Assault of Non-Solicited P*rnography And Marketing Act."


How it affects businesses: The CAN-SPAM Act prevents businesses from sending non- solicited advertisements through email for their business to consumers. For businesses, it makes it a bit harder and more expensive to advertise their product/service.


How it affects employees: The CAN-SPAM Act does not necessarily affect employees to a real significant extent. However, they can be affected if the business starts to fail due to their lack of advertising which could cause a decrease in pay or even worse, it could cause them to be laid off.


How it affects consumers: The CAN-SPAM Act was made specifically to protect consumers. People did not want their email to be flooded with unwanted commercial advertising. So at the end of the day the consumer is the only one who is positively affected.


Revisions:  The FTC last updated the CAN-SPAM Rules in 2008, when it tightened the opt-out requirements.  That update included requirements that opt-out must be free of charge and marketers cannot require those opting out to provide any information other than an email address.   Also, unsubscribes cannot require that steps be taken other than a reply message or visiting a single page.


Links to three (3) court cases that have involved this agency, policy, law, or regulation:
1. https://www.computerworld.com/article/2561173/supreme-court-refuses-to-hear-univ--of-texas-spam-case.html

2. https://www.lexisnexis.com/community/casebrief/p/casebrief-gordon-v-virtumundo-inc
3. https://www.govtech.com/security/attorney-general-abbott-files-first-texas.html

Sources (links): https://www.fcc.gov/general/can-spam

Year established:
Truth in advertising was established in 1914

What led up to the creation:
This act was created because there were many misleading representations of goods or services conveyed through false advertisement promoted by a business. Because businesses were selling things through false advertisements their businesses were growing. The government wanted to put an end to this so they passed the Truth in Advertisement and Marketing Act.       

What is the purpose:
This act states that anything that someone advertises, it must be truthful, not misleading and when it is appropriate it should be backed by scientific evidence. This is an important Act because whatever you are advertising should serve as a preview of what someone can actually experience following their purchase.

How it affects businesses:
I feel like this will affect businesses in a good way because they can not lie in their advertisements so they must work to where they have to meet their expectations. What I mean by this is that they won’t be able to lie in their advertisement by saying they have x, y and z. But when a customer shows up they do not have what they advertised. So they must show what they have.

How it affects employees:
This does not affect employees because it mainly affects consumers because it protects the consumer from what they are going to purchase. Therefor I feel like it does not affect employees in any way.

How it affects consumers:
It affects consumers by ensuring them that they get what they see on an advertisement and that there will be nothing that they didn't know about the product or service that they are buying.

Revisions:
The Truth in Advertising and Marketing is managed by the Federal Trade commission (FTC) and they revise the act  every two years to make sure everything is up to date.

Links to three (3) court cases that have involved this agency, policy, law, or regulation:
1. case 1 Scroll down towards middle for cases.

2. Case 2

3. Case 3

Sources (links):
https://www.hg.org/legal-articles/truth-in-advertising-and-marketing-and-other-ftc-regulations-31217#:~:text=When%20consumers%20see%20or%20hear,appropriate%2C%20backed%20by%20scientific%20evidence.

Links to three (3) court cases that have involved this agency, policy, law, or regulation:
1.https://www.cpsc.gov/Newsroom/News-Releases/2021/CPSC-Sues-Amazon-to-Force-Recall-of-Hazardous-Products-Sold-on-Amazon-com
2.https://www.cpsc.gov/Newsroom/News-Releases/2004/Court-Dismisses-Lawsuit-Against-CPSC
3.https://www.citizen.org/litigation/texas-assn-of-manufacturers-v-u-s-consumer-product-safety-commission/

Sources (links):

“." Encyclopedia of Small Business. . Encyclopedia.com. 25 Oct. 2021 .” Encyclopedia.com, Encyclopedia.com, 15 Nov. 2021, https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/political-science-and-government/us-government/united-states-consumer-product-safety-commission.

“CPSC.gov.” U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, https://www.cpsc.gov/. 

“CPSC Sues Amazon to Force Recall of Hazardous Products Sold on Amazon.com.” U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, https://www.cpsc.gov/Newsroom/News-Releases/2021/CPSC-Sues-Amazon-to-Force-Recall-of-Hazardous-Products-Sold-on-Amazon-com. 

“Court Dismisses Lawsuit against CPSC.” U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, https://www.cpsc.gov/Newsroom/News-Releases/2004/Court-Dismisses-Lawsuit-Against-CPSC. 

“Texas 🤬'n of Manufacturers V. Consumer Product Safety Commission.” Public Citizen, 14 June 2021, https://www.citizen.org/litigation/texas-assn-of-manufacturers-v-u-s-consumer-product-safety-commission/. 

Year established: 

The Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) was established on February 5  1993. 


What led up to the creation:
It was signed by President Clinton in the White House and this was the first bill he signed on February 5, 1993. FMLA intended to protect employees and it was the first piece of legislation Bill Clinton signed during presidency. Times were changing and Americans no longer were stay at home caregivers. Before Clinton however, Bush vetoed FMLA and vetoed the expansion of FMLA.

What is the purpose:
The purpose of FMLA was to provide protection for workers, because when they return from their leave they get to return to the same position they worked as or an equivalent position with benefits, pay, status that is also equal. Under the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 most employees are entitled to a total of 12 workweeks of unpaid leave for the birth of a child and care for a child, placement of child in adoption or foster care, care of spouse, child, or parent with serious health condition. However, FMLA only applies to companies with 50 or more employees. 

How it affects businesses:
I think this policy is very good and beneficial and in fact a study shows it isn’t a burden for employers. However it has increased the incidents where employees misuse FMLA. When workers come back they come back better instead of continuing to work out of fear they may be fired and then doing a bad job. Most leaves are short term and don’t affect the businesses too much. However most of the problems come the with the law. It’s easy to abuse the regulations. The employee also doesn’t have to notify the employer in advance about taking a leave once they get approved which can be frustrating. I think FMLA is a good law that needs to be tightened a bit.

How it affects employees: The Family Medical Leave Act affects employees positively because it acts as an insurance in a way. It allows the employee to take time off during critical times and can allow them to come back better than ever. It allows them to keep their position and benefits once they return. 


How it affects consumers: This allows consumers to not deal with changed business operations and having difficulty. The consumer isn't affected entirely because this mostly applies to the employer and employees so it can increase potential profits for the company as the worker is coming back stronger. It also can create goods that are at high quality for consumers compared to an employee that couldn't leave and urgently has to.


Revisions: FMLA has experienced  changes recently due to Covid - 19. There were proposals for more expansions to FMLA. Specifically, that bill required private employers with 500 or fewer employees, and most public-sector employers, to provide extended “emergency” FMLA leave for a variety of COVID-19-related contingencies.  It further adopted an emergency paid sick leave requirement for these same employers.


Links to three (3) court cases that have involved this agency, policy, law, or regulation:

1.Texas Workforce Commission v. Wichita County,Texas
https://www.texasemploymentlawupdate.com/2016/12/articles/case-summaries/texas-court-holds-employees-on-fmla-leave-not-qualified-to-receive-unemployment-benefits/

2.United States v. Windsor https://www.dol.gov/agencies/whd/fmla/spouse/fact-sheet

3.University of Texas El Paso v. Herrera
https://www.texasemploymentlawupdate.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/852/2010/07/UTvHerrera.pdf

Sources (links):https://www.opm.gov/policy-data-oversight/pay-leave/leave
administration/fact-sheets/family-and-medicalleave/https://www.dol.gov/general/topic/benefits-leave/fmla

https://www.theatlantic.com/sexes/archive/2013/02/the-family-and-medical-leave-act-at-20-still-necessary-still-not-enough/272605/

https://www.cbpp.org/research/economy/a-national-paid-leave-program-would-help-workers-families

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/f/family-and-medical-leave-act.asp

https://www.littler.com/publication-press/publication/congress-makes-significant-changes-proposed-fmla-and-sick-leave

https://www.businessinsurance.com/article/20030928/ISSUE01/100013466/fmla-hasnt-been-big-burden-for-employers

https://www.jec.senate.gov/public/_cache/files/646d2340-dcd4-4614-ada9-be5b1c3f445c/jec-fact-sheet---economic-benefits-of-paid-leave.pdf

What is the purpose:
The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) is the federal law that makes it illegal to discriminate against someone who is applying to be an employee, due to their race, sex, religion, color (as well as pregnancy, transgender status, and sexual orientation, genetic information, disability or age). 

How it affects businesses:
The EEOC essentially keeps business' and employers on track by defending employees or potential employees of that business in court when they are discriminated. On top of that, the EEOC provides guidelines and other help resources for employers in the hiring process in attempt to decrease the chance of lawsuits against employers around the world. 

How it affects employees:
The EEOC is incredibly important for employees, it's what gives them their power. They are responsible for enforcing federal laws that make it illegal to discriminate against a job applicant or an employee because of the person's race, color, religion, sex. Employees use the EEOC as grounds to right the wrongs of their employer.

How it affects consumers:
I don't necessarily think this affects consumers unless they are entering the hiring process. The EEOC mainly defends the employees in their fight against their employer.

Revisions:

1. In the beginning the 1963 the Equal Pay Act of 1963, only specifically states that the Equal Pay Act only protects sex-based wage discrimination. 

2. In 1964, Lyndon B Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act, which creates EEOC, protecting employment discrimination based n sex, race, color, religion, and national origin.
3. In 1967, Congress passes the Age Discrimination in the Employment act of 1967, protecting individuals who are between 40-65 years of age from discrimination in employment.
4. It was in 1972 that the EEOC was given more power so that an employee who was denied employment, due to one of the previously mentioned characteristics, can sue the employer for unjust discrimination. 
5. In 1973, Congress passed the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, prohibiting the Federal government from discriminating against qualified individuals who have disabilities.
6. In 1978,  the government amends Title VII passing the Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978 to make clear that discrimination based on pregnancy is unlawful sex discrimination.
7. In 1990, EEOC is given responsibility for enforcing Title I of ADA  which prohibits private employers, state and local governments, unions, and employment agencies from discriminating against people with disabilities years after the President signs the bill
8. In 2008 president George w. Bush signed into the genetic information nondiscrimination act of 2008. This prohibits the employment discrimination based on genetic information. President George W. Bush also changed the definition of the term “disability” to make it easier for a person to establish that he or she has a medical condition covered by the ADA. 

Links to three (3) court cases that have involved this agency, policy, law, or regulation:
1. Case 1
2. Case 2
3. Case 3

Sources (links):
https://www.eeoc.gov/overview

What is the purpose:
The National Labor Relations Board grants employees the right to form unions; engage in protected concerted activities to improve working conditions, and makes it unlawful for an employer to discriminate against an employee because of that employees affiliation with a union. Examples of these activities could include complaints from a group of employees about wages and benefits, and working conditions. The NLRB also has the responsibility of conducting representation elections and certifying unions as the bargaining representatives of employees.

How it affects businesses:
The National Labor Relations Board was originally created to protect the rights of employees/employers, encourage collective bargaining, and restrict certain private sector labor and management practices. All these factors are beneficial to businesses and the economy by avoiding any harm that could have been done to the general welfare of their workers and strengthens business, allowing them to thrive.

How it affects employees:
The NLRB protects workplace democracy by giving employees the fundamental right to seek better working conditions, wages, representations, and more without the fear of retaliation from the company. The National Labor Relations Board offers career opportunities that feature good starting salaries, perform-based increases, flexible hours, and the ability to maintain a balanced lifestyle. Other employment benefits include medical benefits, dental, insurance, savings, retirement, and more!

How it affects consumers:
The National Labor Relations Board only applies to most private sector employers, such as manufacturers, retailers, private universities, and health care facilities. So this agency does not affect consumers.

Revisions:
In 1974, the National Labor Relations Board was amended to create coverage and protection for employees of non-profit hospitals. Originally, these hospitals were covered by the Wagner Act of 1935, but were then excluded with the Taft-Hartley amendments.

Links to three (3) court cases that have involved this agency, policy, law, or regulation:
1. NLRB VS. Google
In 2020 the National Labor Relations Board expanded its complaint against Google to defend two fired Google workers. Those former employees say the company retaliated against them for protesting its work with US Customs and Border Protection. The NLRB claimed Google was “interfering with, restraining, and coercing employees” who were exercising their legal rights to discuss workplace issues with their colleagues, including firing two employees.
https://www.engadget.com/nlrb-google-complaint-expansion-212411947.html
2. NLRB VS. Jones and Laughlin Steel
The National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) charged Jones & Laughlin Steel Co (the country’s fourth largest steel producer), with discriminating against employees who were union members. This was done by determining that labor-management disputes were directly related to the flow of interstate commerce and should be regulated by the national government. 
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1900-1940/301us1

3. NLRB VS. Texas Dental Association
A supervisor at a dental association in Austin Tx was fired after she refused to give up the names of employees who had anonymously signed a petition protesting management. The NLRB found the discharge was unlawful because she had rightfully refused to violate federal labor law by punishing concerted activity. A supervisor and another former employee waived reinstatement in exchange for $900,000 in lost wages and benefits. 
https://www.nlrb.gov/case/16-CA-025349

Sources (links):
https://www.nlrb.gov/

The law was passed at a time when wages were low, wage theft was prevalent, and homework and sweatshops were common, the FLSA was intended to set a minimum wage floor, prevent child labor, and to provide for overtime premium pay to curtail excessive hours.

FLSA establishes minimum wage , overtime pay, recordkeeping, and youth employment standards. Federal minimum wage is 7.25 $ per hour ( effective July 24th, 2009) but other states have their own laws

How it affects businesses: 
Minimum wages reduce entry-level jobs, training, and lifetime income.Minimum wages reduce employment opportunities for youths and create unemployment. Workers miss out on on-the-job training opportunities that would have been paid for by reduced wages upfront but would have resulted in higher wages later.

How it affects employees: Under both competitive and monopsonistic labor-market models, the sustained increase in wages could generate larger employment responses than more recent minimum wage changes that were rapidly eroded by inflation


How it affects consumers: I don't think this law necessarily directly affects consumers because it is a law for employees to receive better wages and to prevent anything unfair like child labor.


Revisions:
2007-  The FLSA to provide for the increase of the federal minimum wage by creating a minimum wage of $7.25 per hour by July 24, 2009.
2019- On September 24, The U.S. Department of Labor announced a final rule to revise the federal Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA), the law that governs eligibility for overtime pay. They are increasing the minimum weekly salary to 684$.


Links to three (3) court cases that have involved this agency, policy, law, or regulation:
1. https://dockets.justia.com/docket/texas/txwdce/7:2021cv00230/1155414
2. https://dockets.justia.com/docket/texas/txwdce/3:2021cv00295/1155311
3. https://dockets.justia.com/docket/texas/txedce/1:2021cv00576/211108

Sources (links): https://www.dol.gov/agencies/whd/flsa https://webapps.dol.gov/elaws/elg/minwage.htm https://www.nelp.org/commentary/fair-labor-standards-act-at-80-its-more-important-than-ever/ https://wol.iza.org/key-topics/minimum-wagehttps://www.cbo.gov/publication/51925https://deliverypdf.ssrn.com/delivery.php?ID=212089113126090114019118099011026076010017086048025010071009107061029124052033038059041025022003110121031071006038033024107080067020119116007106067126071118075077094089022022101030101005077119111&EXT=pdf&INDEX=TRUE 

Year established: 1971

What led up to the creation: The Occupational Safety and Health Administration was created after many tragic events that harmed and killed American workers. An example of a tragic event is the Triangle Shirtwaist Company fire in 1911. This fire was located in NYC and it killed 146 out of 500 employees (worst work related disasters) After all these tragic events were occurring, House Representative William A Steiger worked to pass a bill for Americans who were killed by accidents that were work related (50 million suffering with injuries during jobs) Then, President Richard M signed the OSHA of 1970 in honor of two men and mainly because a lot of workers were suffering but the injuries costed billions of dollars in lost wages and production.

What is the purpose: The purpose of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration is to ensure safe and healthy working conditions for workers. They aim to set working conditions for workers by enforcing standards for training, education and assistance. Their main goal is to prevent injuries and illnesses from exposure to difficult workplace conditions. 

How it affects businesses:  I believe the Occupational Safety and Health Administration affects business by facilitating a safe and healthy environment for all workers and it is designed to specifically help workplaces that don’t have much safety. Their management system is implemented to exponentially decrease injury and illness rates. By doing this there would be major insurance savings which could be invested better in the business’ future. 

How it affects employees: The Occupational Safety and Health Administration agency affects business employers by drastically reducing their injury and illness rates in workplaces and prevents them. Not only does OSHA provide safety in workplaces but OSHA also institutes information, training and assistance to all employers and workers of a business. They focus primarily on trying to protect all workers in the workplace. 

How it affects consumers: The Occupational Safety and Health Administration affects consumers by developing safety standards for all consumer products in order to decrease any conflicts. OSHA also helps consumers by promoting investigation into product related deaths, illnesses and injuries. 

Revisions: OSHA makes changes fairly often and doesn't come according to a regular schedule because whenever there are changes it can be serious. Whenever a regulation is changed OSHA gives their employers months to adjust to the new rule. For example, in 2016 OSHA changed their regulation on crystalline silica. This is because they thought the permissible exposure limit (PEL) that existed wasn’t protecting workers sufficiently. To this day manufactures are having a hard time adjusting to it. 

Links to three (3) court cases that have involved this agency, policy, law, or regulation: 

Sources (links): 

https://www.dol.gov/general/aboutdol/history/osha#:~:text=Three%20decades%20ago%20Congress%20enacted,following%20a%203%2Dyear%20struggle. 

https://safetymanagement.eku.edu/blog/an-overview-of-occupational-safety-in-the-united-states/ 

https://www.osha.gov/aboutosha 

https://www.osha.gov/aboutosha/30-years 

https://www.osha.gov/news/newsreleases/region6/07222015 

https://ohsonline.com/articles/2014/04/11/osha-wins-seaworld-case.aspx 

https://www.ishn.com/articles/111241-recent-osha-enforcement-cases 

https://www.osha.gov/laws-regs/mou/1974-04-11    

https://www.robovent.com/frequently-asked-questions/often-osha-regulations-change/ 

Sources (links):
https://www.experian.com/blogs/ask-experian/credit-education/report-basics/fair-credit-reporting-act-fcra/#:~:text=The%20Fair%20Credit%20Reporting%20Act%20(FCRA)%20is%20a%20federal%20law,collect%20in%20your%20consumer%20reports.

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/f/fair-credit-reporting-act-fcra.asp 

https://www.shrm.org/resourcesandtools/tools-and-samples/hr-qa/pages/cms_015156.aspx#:~:text=The%20FCRA%20requires%20employers%20to,applicants%20to%20obtain%20these%20reports.

The first workers' compensation laws was enacted in Texas in 1913

 

What led up to the creation:

It started off in Europe and then dispersed to other places like the US. The Workers compensation laws took 37 years for every state in the US to pass the laws.

 

 

What is the purpose: The purpose of the workers' compensation laws was to make sure that when an employee of a company were to get injured in some way then the Workers compensation would come in hand. The insurance will pay for the injured person's medical care. The employee will also still earn the money they lost when not at work. 

 

 

How it affects businesses: I do believe that it may be hard for some businesses to provide for that. So the state of Texas doesn't require your business to have Workers Compensation. Which can be a good thing because the business doesn’t have to pay but the business can face many complaints and lawsuits on personal injury lawsuits.

 

How it affects employees: The workers compensation actually benefits  the employees of a business because it includes medical benefits to people who have injuries that are work related. Which would mean that if someone fell down the stairs because of an issue with the stairs. That would mean the employee could use the Workers compensation law so the company will have to pay for your medical bill.

 

 

How it affects consumers: It indirectly relates to consumers because when a company gets more claims the prices of the products increase. Which affects the consumers because then they will have to pay more. So if the company added safety features to their product then the product will be more safe. 

 

 

Revisions: Workers compensation has never been revised but I believe that it isn't necessary because it is very important to many companies to have this system. 

 

 

Links to three (3) court cases that have involved this agency, policy, law, or regulation:

1.Case 1 Pennsylvania 

 

2.Case 2 South Carolina 

 

3.Case 3 Virginia  

 

Sources (links);

https://www.ncci.com/Articles/Pages/Insights_CourtCase-Update-Countrywide-Nov2021.aspx

What is the purpose:
This act prohibited activities that restrict interstate commerce and competition within the marketplace.

How it affects businesses:
This bill has helped lots of businesses as they have been caught for using other materials that other businesses have already come up with. So overall saying this has helped out original business ideas and gave persecution to the fraudsters who took from the original holders.

How it affects employees:
Employees may be affected because if they are a member of a firm or corporation that is involved in dishonesty and fraud, they may lose their jobs or face a highly difficult period.

How it affects consumers:
The effect of the consumers would be based on the facts of how the business handles tasks. The business relies on the act as the consumers rely on how the business handles duties.

Revisions:
The Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914, which was enacted to reinforce prior antitrust laws, continues to control commercial activities in the United States today. This revised the prerequisite law.



Links to three (3) court cases that have involved this agency, policy, law, or regulation:
1. United States v. Workingmen's Amalgamated Council of New Orleans (1893)
2. Chesapeake & Ohio Fuel Co. v. the United States (1902)
3. United States v. AT&T Co

Sources (links):

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/sherman-antiturst-act.asp

https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/sherman_antitrust_act#:~:text=The%20Sherman%20Antitrust%20Act%20of,%C2%A7%C2%A7%201%2D38.

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/clayton-antitrust-act.asp

The ULC officially took on the task of drafting a comprehensive code to provide guidelines for all commercial transactions in 1940. In 1942, the ULC and the American Law Institute joined in a partnership that put all the component commercial laws together in a comprehensive Uniform Commercial Code that was offered to the states for their consideration in 1951. Pennsylvania became the first state to adopt the UCC in 1953, and every other state followed suit over the next twenty years.

What is the purpose:
Prior to the creation of the UCC, the laws governing the contracts between merchants, manufacturer, and shipper differed from state causing confusion for business owners. The UCC's purpose is to create a uniform code for commerce between states to make transactions between businesses simpler and more standard.

How it affects businesses:
The UCC helps businesses in different states or companies that operate outside of their home state make transactions with each other through a standard legal and contractual framework. The UCC is broad in its scope, applying to several parts of a business such as the sale of goods, the use of negotiable instruments, fund transfers, bulk transfers or sales, and letters of credit. For example, Article 2 is frequently cited in settling disputes as it encompasses several laws regarding the sale of goods. In addition, Articles 3 and 9 govern the use of negotiable instruments and secured transactions respectively are used by businesses when considering collateral for securing commercial loans.

How it affects employees:
It does not effect employees as the UCC is a standard code for business among companies as a whole. However, the UCC does apply to small business and entrepreneurs, who would be considered merchants.

How it affects consumers:
The UCC provides rights to both the buyer and the consumer and provides provisions for several types of warranties. If there is a breach of a warranty, a consumer under the UCC can cancel the contract, within a certain time frame, or sue for damages.

Revisions:
In 1994, Article 8 went through important recasting permitting lenders to negotiate security interests in a debtor's securities and provides a model form on creating an agreement.

In the 1990s, the UCC's editorial board proposed am amended Article 2-207. However, this amendment gave rise to what became known as the battle of the forms as there were frequent disputes over whose boilerplate terms, those of the buyer of seller, would survive the commercial transaction.

In 2010, Article 9 was amended and took effect in most states where guidance was provided on what name am individual debtor should have on a financing statement and also addresses the security interest in a collateral after a debtor has moved or changed locations.

In 2021, Texas, as well as in Wyoming and Rhode Island, the UCC Article 12 was amended to recognize cryptocurrency and blockchain-based virtual currencies.
 


Links to three (3) court cases that have involved this agency, policy, law, or regulation:
1. https://caselaw.findlaw.com/tx-court-of-appeals/1322836.html
2. https://www.google.com/url?q=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/tx-court-of-appeals/1908155.html&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1639158215155000&usg=AOvVaw1KW-JD4TYXwmFTROLWkTnb&safe=active
3.https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/texas/txndce/3:2008cv00670/176132/12/

Sources (links):
https://www.uniformlaws.org/acts/ucc

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/u/uniform-commercial-code.asp#:~:text=The%20Uniform%20Commercial%20Code%20(UCC)%20is%20a%20standardized%20set%20of,and%20regulations%20for%20transacting%20business.&text=The%20Uniform%20Commercial%20Code%20(UCC)%20is%20important%20since%20it%20helps,standard%20legal%20and%20contractual%20framework.

https://www.lexisnexis.com/lexis-practical-guidance/the-journal/b/pa/posts/contract-drafting-advice-the-battle-of-the-forms-demystified
https://www.omm.com/resources/alerts-and-publications/alerts/texas-uniform-commercial-code-updated-to-recognize-cryptocurrency/