• it is important that English learners learn how to speak English

• it is equally important that they not abandon their native language

• according to McFarlan, 77% of ELL speak Spanish

• EL have substantially lower test scores than English speaking students

Importance of Learning English:

• it is important to expose learners to English asap

• research indicates that it takes EL at least 5 years to reach the same oral skill level as their English-speaking peers

• the push for a language arts curriculum has made outcomes harder for ELL

• exposure is key

Effective Teaching Practices:

• ELL require support from teachers

• some language learners face not only a language barrier but also a cultural barrier

• it is important to make students feel comfortable and provide as much support as possible

  • build on student experiences and familiar concepts

  • provide students with background knowledge

  • designate language and content objectives for each lesson

  • graphic organizers

• make instruction as clear and concise as possible

• use pictures or real-life objects

• provide hands-on opportunities for learning

• give additional practice and time for activities

• if possible, give instruction in the child's primary language

• some schools have dual language programs to help non-English speakers (ELL services, 2-way immersions or dual language)

Instructional Techniques for Working w/ELL:

• teachers should be aware that in some language words can look and sound similar. teachers should take advantage of these types of words while teaching

• give the learner extra time to complete work, tests

• give yourself extra time to teach these learners

• build vocab of different languages in your classroom

• involve parents and siblings of a child in their learning

• if a student has a family member that knows English, have them assist you with teaching and speaking

Techniques:

• use peers as tutors to help and English speaking child. could benefit both students

• if possible, give students the choice of how to respond to questions and do their work. they might choose to use their native language, English language or both

Developing Word Recognition and Comprehension:

• an English learner has to decode written English and acquire alphabetic principle

• EL students also need specific instruction in vocab as meaning may be lost when decoding words

• the integration of phonics and vocab development is essential for the development of decoding skills and vocab (if this isn't done, the student will fail)

Other Teaching Tips:

• build vocab

• provide visuals

• draw on both languages

• validate Spanish speakers' language

• select texts that the students can practice phonic patterns (decodable books)

• teach students in small groups

• read fiction and non-fiction book selections

Assessment for EL:

• modify assessments when able

• give students more time to do assessments

• place students where they feel comfortable

• give them assessment during the day when the student is most focused

• read the test to students (when applicable)

• have students take a practice test

• make sure you document what exactly you have modified for the students

• do not modify norm reference tests as it will skew the norm

Looking at the Brain:

• reading is not a natural process. there are many steps and connections that need to happen in the brain for a student to learn how to read

• this is why a structured and systematic process of teaching reading needs to take place

• this is structured literacy

Theories covered this semester:

1. simple view of reading - word recognition x language comprehension = reading comprehension

   1. research studies show that a students reading comprehension scores can be predicted if decoding skills and language comprehension abilities are known

2. simple view of writing - foundational writing skills x composition = skilled written expression

   1. ex: letter formation, handwriting, correct spelling, punctuation/special organization

   2. composition - knowledge of the topic. ability to choose words and order them logically

      1. ex: topic knowledge, vocab/word choice, sentence formation, grammar and usage, organization of ideas, audience awareness

3. Scarboroughs Reading Rope

   1. created by Dr. Hollis Scarborough

   2. contains 2 strands: language comprehension and word recognition

   3. language comprehension strand: background knowledge, vocab, language structures, verbal reasoning, literacy knowledge

   4. word recognition strand: phonological awareness, decoding, sight recognition

   5. all of these strands intertwine together. if the student has mastered all of the strands, reading comprehension will take place

4. Ehri's Phases of Word Reading

   1. Dr. Linnea Ehri developed 4 phases in which students go through when learning how to read words.

      1. prealphabetic phase - little knowledge of letter sounds, use pictures to represent letters

      2. partial alphabetic phase - learning that letters represent sounds, and the shape of letters

      3. full alphabetic phase - decoding harder words, unfamiliar word patterns

      4. consolidated alphabetic phase - learn more about words, syllables

• Theoretical framework focused on writing as the product of 2 necessary sets of skills: lower-level transcript (spelling, handwriting, keyboarding) & text generation (word, sentence, and text writing)

• Ideation: idea generation, word choice, content, text structure, genre

• foundational writing skills X composition = skilled writing expression

• foundational skills: encoding of words into written symbols

• ex: letter formation, handwriting, correct spelling, punctuation/special organization

• composition - knowledge of the topic. ability to chose words and order them logically

  • ex: topic knowledge, vocab/word choice, sentence formulation (complete sentence, verb tense), grammar and usage, organization of ideas, audience awareness

Handwriting

Stage of Writing

Syntax

Semantics

Grammar

Stages of Writing:

• early writing strategies

• pre-phonetic stage: place letters on page with no regards to words (scribbles)

• semi-phonetic stage: represents some phonemes with graphemes

• (beginning sounds)

• phonetic stage: nearly every phoneme is represented by a grapheme

• transitional stage: students realize that words cannot always be written as they sound

Writing Workshop:

• this can be done in a variety of ways, and occur several times a week or every day of the week

• the teacher can serve several roles such as facilitator coach and guide

• the student's role is to support and help each other

• writing workshop usually begins with teacher instruction on a specific writing skill. mini lesson and demonstration

• during this time, the students and teacher usually write together-shared writing

• the students are then asked to go write on writing projects

• teachers then conference with students or group of students assisting them where needed

Writing to Learn:

• students can use writing to learn and understand difficult concepts

• writing allows students to "think on paper"

• 1. note taking can be done on note cards, notebooks, or any paper. this allows students to utilize their notes to help them learn

• 2. brainstorming - allows students to quickly write down thoughts about a topic

• semantic mapping/Venn diagrams - an organized way of brainstorming about topics

• writing summaries

Journals:

• can be used in a variety of ways

• promote fluency in writing, provide reflection, promote thinking and personal thoughts

• reading logs are used as a response to reading literature. helps students reflect about the piece of literature or story they have read. (own feelings)

• learning logs are used to record subject matters rather than personal thoughts

• double entry journals- quotes from text on one side, response on one side

• dialogue journals - conversations with others

Process Approach to Writing:

• this will look different depending on age of student

• 1. prewriting - brainstorming about writing

• 2. drafting - writing a rough draft

• 3. revising - changing around words, phrases, ideas, then rewriting

• 4. editing - focusing on grammar, punctuation, spelling

• 5. publishing - making it into a book

• not all writing will go through these stages. it depends on what the writing piece is used for, and who is writing it. students also may move through stages in various order

Writing Stages:

1. Pre-writing: read info/research about topic. brainstorm about topic. fill out a graphic organizer to help the writing process. make a list of what should be included in the writing

2. drafting: writing thoughts and ideas on paper

   1. do not worry about punctuation, spelling, complete sentences. spend time writing

   2. look at the graphic organizer that was created and write about the ideas in the organizer

3. revising

   1. means looking closely at the writing piece

   2. add or remove sentences

   3. make sure the writing is clear to audience members

   4. improving transitions

   5. using antonyms for redundant words

   6. developing characters or topic more deeply

4. editing/publishing

   1. edit for spelling, punctuation, complete sentences, capital letters, run on sentences

   2. rewrite or type final draft of writing. add title page, etc.

Other Types of Writing:

• persuasive - trying to persuade someone to believe something or buy something

• narrative writing - story writing

• expository - gives facts and true information about a topic

• descriptive - gives detailed visualization of an event, character, situation or place

• compare/contrast - compare how things are alike and different

Different Genres in Writing:

• fiction

• biographies and autobiographies

• reports

• letters

• poems

• this type of writing needs to be directly modeled for students

• all need to have graphic organizers to help students organize and write down information

Assessing Writing:

• when looking and assessing children's writing pieces be positive

• find the good things in their writing and build on those. make suggestions of how phrases and sentences can sound better

• never criticize writing pieces. this will cause the child to shut down and not like to write

• rubrics can be used to assess writing

• other tools to help with editing (CUPS)

Sedita's Writing Rope:

• the writing rope consists of the following strands

  • critical thinking

  • syntax

  • text structure

  • writing craft

  • transcription

• 1. Critical Thinking:

  • engages what the student already knows

  • uses students background knowledge about a subject/s to help them compose a writing piece

  • also includes info such as organizing, drafting, writing, and revising

  • students can use their critical thinking to help with graphic organizers, writing plans, brainstorming, and then putting these thoughts into a writing piece

• 2. Syntax

  • study of understanding of grammar

  • grammar is the arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses that make a sentence

  • first understood by listening to language (speaking, listening to read alouds, reading stories)

  • students benefit from instruction on how to form correct sentences and parts of sentences

• 3. Text Structure

  • students need instruction on specific text structures and how these structures are written (narrative, expository, opinion, persuasive)

  • paragraph structure

  • organization of paragraph and written text

  • linking and transition words and phrases

• 4. Writing Craft

  • how a writer uses their own voice in their writing pieces

  • this includes word choice, awareness of task, audience, purpose, literary elements, literary techniques

• 5. Transcription

  • how the student produces their writing thoughts

  • spelling

  • handwriting

  • typing

  • students need exposure and practice with all these skills to be a good writer

•Partial alphabetic: students recognize some letters & can use them together with context to remember words by sight

•Full alphabetic: posses extensive working knowledge of the graphonemic system & can use this to analyze fully the connections between graphemes and phonemes in words

•Consolidated alphabetic: students consolidate their knowledge of grapheme-phoneme blends into larger units that recur in different words

• children's vocabulary knowledge grows tremendously throughout school years

• according to NAEYC by the age of 3 there is a 30-million-word gap between children from wealthiest to poorest families

Levels of Word Knowledge:

• according to Beck et al there are 3 levels of word knowledge

• unknown - unfamiliar words

• acquainted - basic meaning only after student gives it some attention

• established - words known easily and automatically

• words that aren't known will affect comprehension

Vocabulary Programs in Classrooms:

• vocabulary programs should:

1. provide children with frequent, extensive, and varied language approaches

2. includes instruction in individual words

3. provides students with instruction in learning words independently

4. fosters word consciousness - builds students interest in words

• this also involves reading, writing, speaking, and listening

Language Experiences:

• teachers should be teaching or exposing students to vocabulary everyday

• a variety of language experiences is necessary for student growth

• exposure

Ways to Expose Vocabulary to Students:

• Interactive oral reading:

  • children and an adult discuss unknown words that come up in their reading

  • designed for primary grades but effective in upper grades as well

  • exposes children to words that they wouldn't normally be exposed to

Wide Reading:

• Wide reading is particularly important for vocab growth. This is when a student reads a variety of material.

• It will foster automatically, provide knowledge about a variety of topics and leave habits of lifelong readers

• students can learn 3,000-4,000 words per year. many of these words are not directly taught, they come from wide reading

• reading text needs to be easy enough that children can understand and enjoy it

• good readers encounter 1,500,000 words a year

• struggling readers encounter less than 10,000 words a year

Teaching Individual Words:

• teaching individual words depends on how much students know and how well you want them to know the words you present

• 1. learning basic vocab - building basic vocab words. learn to read most frequently used words in English language (sight words)

• 2. learning to read unknown words - learning to read words that are already in their oral vocab (sight words and high frequency words)

• 3. learning new words that represent known concepts - these words are not in oral or reading vocabularies, but they have an available concept of the word (ELL learners)

• 4. learning new words that represent new concepts - most difficult

  • total unfamiliar words. also, different dialect of words (soda vs pop; cart vs buggy)

What Vocab Words do I Teach:

• beck and colleagues suggest 3 tiers of words

• tier 1 - basic words. dont necessarily need to be taught (dog, cat, house)

• tier 2 - high frequency words for more mature language uses. these are the words to focus on (ferocious, magnitude)

• tier 3 - low frequency words. usually found in specific domains of literature. usually taught in content areas (science, social studies, math)

SWIT Selecting Words for Instructional Text:

• teaching vocab from a selection that students are reading

• list words you want students to know or think they will struggle with

  • 1. words that are essential to understand text

  • 2. valuable words - not important for comprehension but are interesting and important

  • 3. accessible words - most students should know these words. ELL & weaker readers may not

Practice Activity:

• 1. look at text

• 2. find 5 or less words that you want to teach the students about the text

• 3. tell why these words are important

• book choices:

  • The life of a butterfly Robin Bernard

  • What do you do with a tail like this Steve Jenkins & Robin Page

  • Frogs Elizabeth Carney

  • This is a mouse Richard T Morris

  • The invisible boy Patrice Barton

Methods of Teaching Individual Words:

• 1. teach basic vocab

• the 1st 100 words of Graves words list accounts for 50% of words that children will encounter

  • oral reading builds oral vocab

  • identify 5-10 words for instruction each week

    • use these in context

    • keep a list of taught words (word wall)

Orthographic Mapping:

• the process in which successful readers use to become fluent readers

• through orthographic mapping children use the oral processing part of their brain to connect the letters of the words they already know (phonemes) to the letters in the word (the spelling). they then store these meanings as sight words

• the letters the readers sees and the sounds the reader hears connect and get processed together in their brains. students connect something they know with something new

Four Part Processing Model:

• is simplified model that illustrates how the brain reads or recognizes words. it illustrates that there are 4 processes that are active in the reading brain including: phonological, orthographic, meaning, and context processors

Introducing a High Frequency Word:

1. say the word to the students (phonological processor). have the students repeat the word to you

2. clap out the syllables in the word (phonological awareness)

3. say the word in a sentence (meaning and context processing center)

4. say word slowly (phonemic awareness and segmentation). show words with Elkonin boxes

5. write letters for word in word boxes (print processor) have students spell the word for you

6. use the word in a sentence. have students say word in a sentence

Teaching Known Words:

• learning to read unknown words (written words) to what is known (spoken words)

• student needs to see the word at the same time is introduced:

  • look at word

  • listen to word while looking at it

  • rehearse and repeat the association again and again

  • ex: bingo games, matching, sight words games

• 3. teaching new words that represent unknown concepts

• 4. learning new words that represent new concepts - this is the most difficult to teach

• context clues: words, phrases, and sentences that surround unknown words

• semantic mapping

Frayer Method:

• the most time-consuming methods to teach vocab. it has been proven to be highly effective

Balanced Strategies Instruction:

1. make motivation the prime concern (show how it will help students)

2. visual displays

3. gradual responsibilities (student becomes responsible for learning)

4. provide follow up

Using Word Parts to Help Learn Words:

• external context - words and sentences that surround a word

• interal context - word parts

  • prefixes - worth teaching as they have meaning

  • dictionary skills - teach how student how to use it. exposure. model this

  • try to teach student "word consciousness" allowing children to enjoy words and find words interesting

Modeling & Encouraging Adept Diction:

• adept diction - skillful use of words in speech and writing

• students recognize choice of words that author makes

• 1. model words

• 2. word of the day and/or week

• 3. children's writing (word choices)

• 4. students build their own vocab (find interesting words)

  • select a small amount of words

  • study them

  • use in writing

Assessing Vocab Knowledge:

• 1. standardized tests - gates-MacGintie reading test

• group administered, norm referenced test

• test a variety of levels (pre-readers to adult)

• can be given to a group (15 mins)

• gives info how students are performing compared to others. doesn't provide info about specific body of words

Other Assessments:

• multiple choice - give words and select definition

• matching test - match words to definition

• discussions and questions

Characteristics:

Difficulty decoding words, symbols for sounds, learning to speak, retention of phonological and phonemic awareness, learning letters and their sounds, memorizing number facts, reading quickly enough to comprehend, spelling.

Role of the Kansas Dyslexia Handbook in supporting educators and students with dyslexia:

It provides guidance for educators by listing characteristics of dyslexia, screening methods, and research. It provides the protocols for screening, structured literacy instruction, resources for families, and professional development.

It is lifelong and cannot be outgrown.

What is the most effective approach for teaching reading to students with dyslexia?

A multisensory and structured literacy approach

Phonological awareness - The ability to recognize and manipulate the sounds in spoken language

Decoding - The process of translating written words into sounds or meanings

Fluency - The ability to read with accuracy, speed, and expression

Comprehension - The understanding and interpretation of written text

Dyslexia - learning disorder characterized by difficulty reading and decoding written language

• recognition & manipulation of sounds in spoken words

• having an awareness of sound properties in words. having the ability to hear and manipulate sounds in words

• Word awareness - knowing how many words are in a sentence

• alliteration - producing and identifying words that start with the same sound

• syllable awareness - counting parts in a word

• rhyming - words that end with the same sound

Phonemic Awareness:

• spoken language consists of a series of small sound units or phonemes and the ability to manipulate these phonemes

• sound out words

• blend sounds

• pre-requisite for reading

• rhyme

• alliteration

• sounds and spoken language

• sounds of language

• language that we hear

• spoken language

• Sequence of skills:

  • substitution (top of pyramid)

  • deletion

  • addition

  • segmentation

  • blending

  • isolation (base of pyramid)

• Based on a scientific theory that helps explain how a student's ability to read depends on how they decode words and understand language

• it is displayed by a simple mathematical equation

• Word recognition x Language comprehension = reading comprehension

• this theory can help educators assess a student's strengths and weaknesses in reading. it can also help to decide what to focus instruction on

Can be broken into 2 parts:

1. alphabetic understanding - knowing that words are made up of letters and sounds

2. phonological recording - knowing how to translate letters into the appropriate speech sounds

Activities to help with Alphabetic Principle:

1. alphabet match

2. alphabet go fish

3. sound/letter games

4. build a flower (letter in middle, petals have picture that start with that letter)

5. feed the monster

6. letter sorting

7. playdough letters, salt trays, bingo dot letters

8. rhyming books

9. mystery words (pictures with items that turn into words)

10. puzzles

Tolman's Hourglass Figure - helps illustrate the progression in which speech sound awareness becomes the foundation for orthography (writing system)

• helps students recall orthographic representations, helps prepare children to represent sounds with letters

Alphabetic Principle:

• more than just knowing alphabet

• critical for learning how to read and spell

• needs to be established early as it is the first step in learning how to read and write

• morphemes - smallest unit of sounds

• words can have one or more morphemes

• morphemes can be free or bound

• free morphemes stand on their own as base words

• bound morphemes rely on other morphemes (-s, -es, prefixes, suffixes)

• morpheme structures come from different language origins

• prefixes

• suffixes

• inflectional: don't change the part of speech

• derivational: helps determine part of speech

• past tense -ed (/t/, /d/, /ed/)

• according to Tolman and moats, the most productive approach to word analysis is morphological because morphemes provide clues to the meaning of new words while reading

• an English learner has to decode written English and acquire alphabetic principle

• EL students also need specific instruction in vocab as meaning may be lost when decoding words

• the integration of phonics and vocab development is essential for the development of decoding skills and vocab (if this isn't done, the student will fail)

Comprehension - The understanding and interpretation of written text

Language Comprehension:

•Background Knowledge: making connections between text & readers own experiences or existing knowledge

•Vocab: essential for understanding and using language effectively

•Language structure: involves grammar, semantics, & syntax. Fundamental for constructing & understanding sentences

•Verbal Reasoning: ability to analyze text, understand figurative language, & draw conclusions which is essential for higher level comprehension

•Literacy Knowledge: knowledge about print, text structures, and genres essential for navigating various texts

• Ability to read rapidly, smoothly, without many errors, and with appropriate expression

• often done orally but silent reading fluency is extremely important

• when done silently a fluent reader reads rapidly without stumbling over words and with comprehension

• important because our brain can only do one thing at a time. reading demands that we attend to 2 operations - decode individual words, and engage in a cognitive process to understand what we are reading

Stages of Reading:

• Stage 0 - emergent literacy stage

• Stage 1 - formal reading instruction

• Stage 2 - Decoding

• Stage 3 - build fluency skills

Guiding Students to become Fluent Readers:

• reading builds on automaticity, vocabulary, world knowledge, and the desire to read more

• to get good at reading you have to read

• reading develops fluency skills

• provide a wide range of books, reading material that is interesting for students

• reading material needs to be at that child's level

• students need to have some selection in what they read. they need to read for pleasure, information, escape or whatever interests they have

Provide Time to Read:

• time must be set aside every day for independent reading. this time should be separate from reading group time.

• how much time depends on grade level, maturity level, and interests

• what matters is that time is set aside for pleasure reading

Providing Print Rich Opportunities:

• to help motivate independent reading, students must be provided with literature opportunities

• Having a well-stocked classroom library is essential. this could contain:

  • leveled books

  • books by same author

  • all genres

  • multi cultural

  • popular series

  • all students need their own book boxes with self selected and teacher selected book titles at their level

  • comfortable seating

  • posters

  • pillows

  • designated place where books should be kept and taken care of

Encouraging Children to Read Outside of School:

1. book bags - send books home for children to read. these books should be familiar. have a slip inside the bag for students to sign that they read the book

2. Pizza Hut Book It Program

3. AR

4. conference with students to see what they are reading at home

5. Have children bring books from home to share

6. purchase books for children to have at home or get sponsors to help purchase books

7. scholastic book orders

8. share with parents where they can find books online

9. tour a public library and help students get a library card so they can go with parents

10. hold literacy nights

Approaches to Developing Fluency:

• independent reading may not be enough

• repeated reading

• Samuels stated that for children to efficiently recognize words they go through 3 stages:

  • Non accurate stage: children have difficulty recognizing and reading words

  • accuracy stage: students are able to read and recognize words accurately, but it takes them time and effort to do so. they tend to read slowly and without expression. may not understand what they are reading

• Samuels said that for struggling readers to become more fluent they need to practice

• this is where repeated reading comes in. Samuels stated that students who read the same passage over and over became more confident and more fluent

Repeated Reading:

• done one on one with a teacher and reader reading a passage together

• teacher takes the lead using a strong voice then student takes over the reading

• advantage is student gets repeated model of reading

• disadvantage is time consuming

• neurological impression - variation to simultaneous reading. reader is paired with a stronger reader and does repeated reading.

Small group and whole class approach:

1. audio assisted

2. partner reading

3. technology

   1. sight words

   2. word wall games

   3. computer games

4. reading groups

Prosody:

• may help with reading comprehension

• prosody - reading with proper expression, volume, phrasing, intonation or stress

• intonation - provides the melody of language that results from the use of stress, pitch, and juncture

• juncture - helps students decide if the sentence/word/phrase says: light housekeeper or lighthouse keeper

Developing Prosody:

• reading quickly with no errors enables children to read with prosody

• rate, accuracy, and prosody lead to better comprehension

• comprehension also influences prosody because it is hard to read text with proper expression that you don't understand

• Ideas to help with prosody:

  • choral reading

  • readers theatre

Assessing Reading Fluency:

• accuracy- amount of words read correctly

• rate - how many words are read in a certain time frame

• expression - if book is read with expression

• comprehension - if student can tell the details about their reading

• this can be done by using a curriculum-based assessment

Curriculum Based Assessment:

• can be commercially purchased or done by the teacher

• select a grade appropriate reading passage

• child reads for 1 minute or so

• while child is reading keep track of errors

• determine the word correct per minute score

  • subtract the number or errors from total of words read correctly

• you can also find rate and accuracy by doing an IRI or running record. these scores can be compared to nationally normed charts

• Ways to assess these components:

  • anecdotal records - written accounts or records of student progress

  • running records

  • self-assessments - students assess themselves

    • use fluency phone

    • record themselves reading on an iPad

    • record - listen - reflect

Fluency Activities:

• readers theatre

• recording of child reading on iPad

• echo game

• sentence pyramids

• scooping phrases

• driving words

• read sentences and phrases in a silly voice

• change the punctuation at the end of a sentence

• decodable fluency sentences

• silly sentences or paragraphs

• poetry

• time reading

Rope represents skilled reading. each strand represents a part of reading development that must be mastered then woven together.

3 lower strands: word recognition (phonological awareness, decoding, sight recognition)

5 higher strands: language comprehension (background knowledge, vocab, language structures, verbal reasoning, literacy knowledge)

Language Comprehension:

•Background Knowledge: making connections between text & readers own experiences or existing knowledge

•Vocab: essential for understanding and using language effectively

•Language structure: involves grammar, semantics, & syntax. Fundamental for constructing & understanding sentences

•Verbal Reasoning: ability to analyze text, understand figurative language, & draw conclusions which is essential for higher level comprehension

•Literacy Knowledge: knowledge about print, text structures, and genres essential for navigating various texts

Word Recognition:

•Verbal Reasoning: ability to analyze text, understand figurative language, & draw conclusions which is essential for higher level comprehension

•Literacy Knowledge: knowledge about print, text structures, and genres essential for navigating various texts

Sight Recognition: ability to apply phonemic segmentation, letter sound correspondence, & spelling patterns to automatically recognize a word

Learning to read involves being able to make meaning from print.

Videos:

An Overview of Scarborough's Rope Jill Ellis (YouTube)

Scarborough's Reading Rope Calgary Reads (YouTube)

Orthographic processing system encompasses functions related to recognizing and recalling written language symbols. It is wired into the left hemisphere and the language processing side of the brain.

The meaning processing system is also called the semantic processing system. It helps our brain interpret the meaning of words in and out of context.

The content processing systems primary job is to interact with and provide support for the meaning processing system.

The 4-part processing model reminds us that instruction should aim to educate all of the processing systems and enable them to work together.

• Words walls are a print to speech tool

• organized by a words initial letter

• organized in alphabetical order

• high frequency words are usually on the wall

• helps students see patterns and relationships in words

• provide references for reading and writing activities

• need to be interactive

• can be used in every subject area

Activities to do with word walls:

• have students find words with certain amount of letters

• have students find words with certain amount of syllables

• word wall bingo

• find rhyming words

• tic tac toe

• word wall cheers

• incorporate words into center activities

• mind reader game

Sound Walls:

• Speech to print tools used to categorize phonemes

• allows students to investigate sounds

• shows students how mouth is formed when making sounds

• shows students that letters can make different sounds

• stops - made with one burst of sound

• voiced - vocal sounds engaged

• fricatives - hissy sounds

• affricatives - combine features of stops with fricatives

• glides - have vowel-like qualities and combine with vowels readily. are consonants that are always followed by a vowel phoneme that literally glide right into the vowel

• liquids - float in the mouth

• nasals - made with air stream directed through the nose

Vowel Valley:

• Vowels are organized by V shape

• At the top of the valley the mouth is mostly closed

• As you descend in the valley the mouth opens

Sound Wall Variation:

• depending on grade level sound walls will vary

• sound walls can progress as children are learning sounds

• Activities to do with sound walls:

  • review sounds

  • have students notice how their mouth change as sounds change

  • explore sounds

  • have students practice making sounds with mirrors

• actual printed letters

• words

• writing sentences

• anything written

Print Awareness:

• what children experience first

• children begin to read and write before they understand what they are doing

• print awareness of a book:

  • front to back

  • left to right

  • top to bottom

• can be modeled through:

  • big books

  • book walks

  • cloze procedure

• the goal of both is the same - to construct meaning and to understand

Why is listening easier?

1. shared background knowledge: we talk to each other about what we know our interest are. We adjust our language as needed to support these conversations. Printed literature doesn't necessarily do that. If I don't know anything about a certain topic a book may not adjust to my needs.

2. Immediate Feedback: with language, you can ask what they mean and get immediate results. You can't ask an author right then and there what they were inferring about in the text

3. Visual cues from speaker: facial cues, body language, change of voice while reading

4. more common words: vocab may be harder or uncommon in a book. spoken language will use words that people are familiar with

5. contextualized meaning - spoken language is used in context. when a reader reads, they must construct meaning without support

6. no transition needed: listener hears the words and understands message. reading is visual - may not understand how a word is pronounced

7. Note: this all depends on the learner. if you have a visual learner some of these factors may not be correct.

Skilled Readers:

• skilled readers recognize words automatically. they don't need to consider the meaning of the surrounding text because it's familiar

• young children can't read printed words automatically. we encourage them to use context, illustrations, and background knowledge

• Strategies:

  • 1. look at the word

  • 2. slide through each sound

  • 3. try a different sound

  • 4. break the word into parts

  • automatic word recognition enables a reader to think about content when reading but doesn't ensure good comprehension

  • word calling

  • goal is comprehension

Makeup of Spoken and Written English:

• phonemes - speech sounds in words

• syllables - basic phonological unit speech

• at a minimum contains a vowel

• most syllables contain an onset and rime

• onsets - initial consonant or consonants

• rimes - a vowel and any consonants that follow it

  • most common in CVC words

• phonograms - rimes that have the same spelling

• word families - words that share the same phonograms

• morphemes - smallest meaning units in which words can be divided and make sense

• the -s changes meaning in the word

• affixes - morphemes that can't stand alone

  • 1. prefixes - placed before root word

  • 2. suffixes - placed after root word

    • inflectional suffix - makes a word plural or indicates tense

    • derivational suffix - alter words meaning and its function (-ly, -ment)

Learning to read words:

• children make connections between printed words and the sounds they represent

1. pre-alphabetic phase

2. partial alphabetic phase

3. full alphabetic phase

4. decoding

5. consolidated alphabetic phase

Processes Involved in Reading Words:

1. sight word reading - recalling words by sight

2. decoding - identifying letter sound correspondence and larger units in words and blending them together to make a word

3. analogizing - comparing an unknown word to a similarly spelled unknown word

4. contextual guessing - using context to figure out words

5. recall - sight word decoding

6. generation - decoding, analyzing, using context

Word Study:

• word study refers to instruction/study about words

• this should focus on:

  • high frequency words

  • letter/sound correspondence

  • larger units in words

  • attention to meaning in writing

• centers

• 6 principles:

  • start where the child is

  • make word study part of your teaching

  • base word study on contrasting words

  • teach how writing system works

  • teach word solving strategies

  • comprehension is overall goal

Building Sight Word Vocab:

• high frequency words - words most commonly printed in english

• exposure - finding words in books, poems, shared writing, word walls

• word banks - childs own list of words

  • word rings

• teaching consonants and vowels - letter of the week

  • assessment for each letter

  • sorts

  • books

  • finding letters in sentences

Blending Words:

1. Body Coda Blending - words can be divided into body and coda

   1. blend together to make ma - p (map)

2. Beck's Successive blending routine

   1. phonemes blended in order

   2. R

   3. Re

   4. Re re

   5. Re d

Word recognition:

• word recognition - accurate and fast retrieval of word forms

• orthographic mapping - process of sorting words for automatic retrieval

• blending letters to make words

• decoding

• sight words vs. high frequency words

• sight words - words that are known by sight. these words are recognized instantly

• high frequency words - hard to sound out words that occur most often in the English language

• insight that spoken words are made up of a sequence of somewhat separable sounds called phonemes

• the sounds in spoken words match directly to the letters in written words

• every word can be broken apart into phonemes

• every word is made up of specific symbols from the alphabet

• every sound in a spoken word is represented by a letter

• With changes in standards and state mandates, assessing students changed

• Many schools focused on high stake testing

• Formative testing (testing that guides instruction) became summative (assessing the outcomes of instruction)

• Schools, principals, and teachers were called out if their students performed poorly on the rests. resulted in educators focusing solely on the test and not the curriculum

• reading curriculum narrowed

• resulted in cheating, teaching to the test, and teachers spending too much time on test taking skills

Response to Intervention:

• 2002-2008 reading 1st initiative (no child left behind) mandated that all primary students be screened early in the school year and progress monitored throughout the year. (4 times a year

• Standardized tests were created. students spend 30-45 minutes taking a test on the computer. computer generated test and results. does not take in account the students' needs, attitudes towards reading, and motivation to read.

What is Assessment:

• an assessment is an inference

• inference is determined by reliability and validity of data

• reliability-data is consistent

• validity-measuring the true nature of things

• assessment should be authentic

• the teacher is in the best position to monitor students' ability

Formative Assessment:

• Formative assessments should show what students actually know at the time you assess them. Could be:

  • alphabetic assessment

  • phonemic awareness

  • reading level

  • decoding

  • comprehension

  • running records

  • writing samples

Collecting Evidence During the School Year:

• there are several ways that teachers can assess students throughout the year to determine if they are learning

• teachers need to look at student work samples, scoring work with rubrics, teacher made assessments, discussions with students, observation of students

• teachers can also teach students to learn on their own.

Gradual Release of Responsibility:

1. Step 1: Explanation and Modeling

   1. teachers need to check students understanding as you teach by questioning techniques and classroom discussions. listen to your students

2. Step 2: Guided Practice

   1. students begin to try out new strategies that they've been taught

   2. teachers keep track of inferences that students make and look at their work samples to ensure understanding of concepts

3. Step 3: Independent Practice

   1. release responsibility to students. the teacher can then do assessments one on one with the students

What Else Can You Do:

• observe the students - look and listen. if you introduce a new concept, observe for understanding and clarification

• reading conferences - can be done one on one or in small groups. have the students read a passage to you to test quickly for fluency, accuracy, and comprehension

• student portfolio - examples of students throughout the year

Analyzing and Summarizing Your Data:

• Computer print outs derived from district assessment

• Anecdotal Notes

• Look for patterns in work and across data that is collected

• Look for reliability (is the evidence dependable?) and validity (can the evidence answer your question?)

What If a Student Needs More Assessment?

• If you can see a student is struggling with information taught, more data is needed

• Running records

• IRI (individual reading inventories) includes word lists, running records, comprehension questions, and retelling of stories

• DIBELS

• working one on one with the students

Commercial Assessment Systems:

• these assessments are commercially made and mostly administered on the computer

• these tests were designed to show student progress

• the test asks students to read a particular passage and answer questions about the passage

• advances students if they answer questions correctly, vice versa

• Problems:

  • doesnt adequately assess skills as it may only provide one or two more questions per skill

  • some students just click on answers to finish the test

  • may not give an adequate picture of how student is performing in the classroom

Progress Monitoring with Curriculum Based Measurement:

• these tests are administered one on one

• (letter sounds, decoding, segmenting words, fluency)

• used to determine whether a reading intervention is working

• may be done every week

• can be designed by teachers or a published assessment (DIBELS, PAST)

• if the assessment is published it will come with norms (what child should be able to do at a certain grade level)

• are quick and easy to administer

• does not show students understanding of curriculum

• should be used as a tool not as the curriculum

Standardized Tests:

• fall into 2 categories

• Criterion referenced tests - include basal tests, progress monitoring tests, and high stakes tests. Students must be a preset performance level. (scoring 9/10 on a test means they have mastered an objective or state standard)

• these tests are developed with a goal in mind:

  • pass/fail

  • mastery of a learning objective (achieve an outcome over the objectives)

  • advanced, proficient, basic

• Norm-referenced tests - measure individual students standing compared to others

• scores represent a norm group:

  • percentile (gives the percentage of students whose scores fall below the particular students score) if student performs in the 70th percentile, they outperform 70% of students in the norm group

  • grade level equivalent (GLE) the average performance of students at a given grade issued to convert a score into a comparative (4.9 end of fourth grade)

  • grading on a curve

• spelling is closely related to reading and writing

• being a proficient speller helps support reading

• the English language system is complex and can be challenging to learn

• spelling depends on recall of complete word images in the orthographic memory system. reading is a recognition task, spelling is a production task

• writing and reading should be taught simultaneously

• yes, we have spell check. however, spell check only catches 50% of misspelled words

Spelling:

• to spell words students have to map out the word using sound/symbol relationships

• students also need to consider syllable structure, morphological structure, language origins as well as odd word patterns

• writing also takes graphomotor coordination to hold writing utensils and form the letter correctly

• dysgraphia - breakdown in communication pathways between the minds image of the letter and the hand's ability to make the letter

How to Teach Spelling:

• phonics or word study lessons

• orthogrphic mapping, 4 part processing system

• high frequency words

• frequent practice of words (meaningful activites - tactile to searching for words)

• spelling patterns incorporating into a word list. words with the same spelling pattern

• find word structures, syllables, phoneme-grapheme, morphemes (map out words)

• introduce 5 words per week

• explain syllable types and syllabication

• write words in sentences. close sentences

• word, pattern sorting

• proofread

• some curriculums have specific spelling activities and lists that need to be taught to students

• dictation

• a unit of pronunciation that is organized around a vowel. it may or may not have a consonant after the vowel

• every syllable has a vowel sound

• words can have one syllable

Why Do we Need to Teach Syllables?

• helps students decode longer words (multi syllabic words)

• helps students with spelling words

• provides students strategies to figure out unknown words

• spoken syllables and written syllables are broken up differently

• starts early with phonological awareness

Types of Syllables:

• there are 6 types of syllables

• 1. closed syllables

  • most common type

  • contains one short vowel letter that is closed by one or more consonants

  • they syllable doesn't have to begin with a consonant to be a closed syllable

  • 2 or more consonant letters often follow short vowels in close syllables

    • cvc - hat

    • ccvc - black

    • ccvcc - blond

  • 2. open syllables

    • ends with a single vowel

    • vowel usually makes the long sound

    • ex: oval, tidal, motor, equal, music, dinosaur, why

    • some single syllable words are open syllables: me, he, she, no, so, go

  • 3. Vowel Consonant-e (VCe) syllables

    • magical silent e

    • syllable contains a long vowel sound spelled with a single letter, followed by a single consonant and a silent e

    • ex: mine, guide, mate, whale, rude, invade

    • there are expectations to this syllable type (have, love)

  • 4. Vowel Teams

    • consists of 2, 3, or 4 letters representing one vowel phoneme

    • vowel team can represent a short, long, or diphthong (glide in the middle) vowel team

    • students need to be flexible with vowel sounds and try a different one if the word does not make sense

    • the saying "when 2 vowels go walking, the 1st one does the talking" is only true about half the time (coin, head, soup, break, friend)

    • sometimes consonants can be vowel teams (ey, ay, oy, uy, walk, augh, ough, igh)

    • ex: boat, caught, team, foam

  • 5. Vowel-r syllables

    • bossy r

    • vowel followed by the letter (ar, er, or, ur, ir)

    • these are difficult for students (especially spelling)

    • the /r/ phoneme is difficult for students with phonological weakness

    • ex: torn, parlor, worth, circus, far, shirt, cart, farm

  • 6. Consonant -le syllables

    • found at the end of multisyllablic words and are always unstressed

    • these words have a spelling pattern that is paricular and stable

    • can be combined with open and closed syllable words

    • if Cle is combined with an open syllable, there is no double consonant in the word (cable, bugle, title)

    • if Cle is combined with a closed syllable there is a double consonant (middle, topple, lesson)

Odd and Schwa Syllables:

• there are always exceptions for the syllable types

• schwa sounds

• unaccented syllables

Suggested Order of Instruction:

• closed

• vowel consonant e

• open

• vowel team

• vowel r

• consonant le

Morphology:

• morphemes - smallest unit of sounds

• words can have one or more morphemes

• morphemes can be free or bound

• free morphemes stand on thier own as base words

• bound morphemes rely on other morphemes (-s, -es, prefixes, suffixes)

• morpheme structures come from different language origins

• prefixes

• suffixes

• inflectional: don't change the part of speech

• derivational: helps determine part of speech

• past tense -ed (/t/, /d/, /ed/)

• according to Tolman and moats, the most productive approach to word analysis is morphological because morphemes provide clues to the meaning of new words while reading

Suffixes and Final Odd Syllable words:

• consonant doubling rule

  • if a one syllable word with one vowel ends in one consonant, double the final consonant before adding the suffix

  • flap - flapped

  • run - running

Drop Silent e Rule:

• when a base word ends in a silent e, drop the e and add a suffix that begins with a vowel

  • scare - scaring, scared, scary

  • move - moved, moving, moves

  • cry - cries, cried, crying

• a complete thought that contains:

  • subject (who/what)

  • predicate (action/state of being)

• Must express a complete idea

• examples:

  • The cat sleeps.

  • Running fast (incomplete)

Four Types of Sentences:

• 1. simple sentence

  • one independent clause

  • ex: The dog barks.

• 2. Compound Sentences

  • 2 or more independent clauses

  • connected by coordinating conjuctions (FANBOYS)

  • ex: The dog barks, and the cat meows.

• 3. Complex Sentences

  • one independent clause + one or more dependent clauses

  • ex: While it rains, the dog sleeps.

• 4. Compound Complex

  • multiple independent clauses + one or more dependent clauses

  • ex: While it rain, the dog sleeps, but the cat plays.

Basic Grammar Rules:

• parts of speech

• nouns (person, place, thing, idea)

• pronouns

• verbs

• adjectives

• adverbs

• prepositions (show relationships)

• conjunctions (connect words/phrases)

• interjections (express emotion)

Syntax Essentials:

• word order matters

  • english follows subject verb object (SVO) order

  • ex:

    • Correct - John reads books.

    • incorrect - Books John reads.

• Agreement Rules

  • subject verb agreement

  • pronoun agreement

  • tense consistency

Common Punctuation Rules:

• Period

  • ends complete thoughts

  • used in abbreviations

• comma

  • separates items in a list

  • sets off clauses

  • used with coordinating

• question mark

  • ends interrogative sentences

• exclamation point

  • shows strong emotion or emphasis

Learning English Together:

• what makes a sentence?

  • a sentence needs two main parts

  • who or what (subject)

    • the dog

    • my sister

    • the book

  • what they do (verb)

    • runs

    • reads

    • is blue

• let's put them together

• the dog runs

• my sister reads

• the book is blue

• several factors involved with text:

  • knowing grade level

  • knowing readability level

  • interest of student

  • does it push students to think

• we want to move students into more complex texts. this helps expose them to more vocabulary, enhances, deeper knowledge base, and helps them become better readers

Assessing Text Difficulty:

• can be determined by:

  • 1. readability formulas (Lexile scores)

  • 2. criteria such as depths of ideas, text organization, language characteristics

  • 3. reader task analysis

  • 4. leveling apps or information taken from book authors

Readability Formula:

• based on objective measures that consider two characteristics of text and yield a grade level equivalent score

• vocab difficulty and syntactic complexity

• Fry method of readability focuses on word difficulty by considering the average number of syllables in the words or a text. It also assesses syntactic complexity by considering the average number of words per sentence

• https://readabilityformulas.com/fry-graph-readability-formula.php

• Lexile Framework: multipart system that uses a comoplet formula of word difficulty and sentence complexity to determine reading level of short text and books

• has a data base that lists levels of books and has a data base where you can calculate a book that you have

  • some say this formula is not a good predictor of the reader and his/her ability

Book Leveling:

• Fountas and Pinnell

• Please consider that these books are not always consistently leveled

• considers number of ideas in the book, size of print, layout, correspondence between text and pictures, sophistication and familiarity of topics

• Level A-Z

• these books are good to use for independent, instructional reading

• SOR suggests that beginning readers use decodable text. especially in lower grade level

Qualitative Factors of Text:

• vocab

• sentence structure

• length

• elaboration

• coherence

• text structure

• familiarity of content and background knowledge

• audience appropriateness

• quality of the writing

• interest

What Text Should be Used:

• varied among educators and educational researchers

• leveled texts (used for independent and instructional reading)

• phonics based text (science of reading)

• basal texts

• reading series

• goal of all reading is comprehension

• the purpose is to entertain the reader or present a story.

• ex: a fairy tale

• narrative text structures should be easy to remember because the structure follows a story with a beginning, a middle, and an end

Goal of All Readers Comprehension:

• comprehension is an evolving process. it begins before a book is opened, changes as the book is read, and continues to change after the book is read

  • a good book or book of high interest is easier to comprehend then something of little to no interest to you

• some students comprehend better with digital print. they can click around on the digital copy to find unknown vocab words and on links or interest to them

• other students enjoy reading actual printed materials (senses)

4 Components of Comprehension:

1. knowledge

2. strategies

3. metacognition

4. motivation

Developing Knowledge:

• comprehension does not occur without knowledge (prior knowledge and background knowledge, language comprehension)

• prior knowledge may be the best predictor of students' ability to comprehend, especially in informational text

• the construction-integration model states that comprehension occurs when an idea in the text is linked to another or when the reader uses prior knowledge

• it is helpful to activate students' prior knowledge before they read

• pre reading discussions are critical

• ELL students need to be taught to use their cultural beliefs and knowledge to make connections in reading

• internet can be a great resource to help make connections and activate knowledge

Comprehension & Metacognitive Strategies:

• comprehension strategies help readers with text

• readers use them to better understand, learn from and remember what they read (drawing inferences)

Strategies:

• conscious efforts that you ask your students to deliberately use. (making inferences)

• flexible (used various places in reading, should be adaptable)

• lead to higher level thinking (take students into deeper interpretation of the text)

• help to reflect and monitor (metacognition) readers understand themselves as readers. they know what to do before, during, and after reading

• they think about what they have to comprehend in text

Key Comprehension Strategies:

• Mature readers use a variety of comprehension strategies

• a good reader:

  • sets a purpose for reading - enjoyment, to gain info (will depend on the reader)

  • asks and answers questions - the reader poses questions before and during reading. this makes reading an active process

  • making inferences- readers can infer meanings by using information in text and using background knowledge to help understand what they are reading. (connect ideas together)

  • determining what is important - readers have to figure out what is important in what they read, especially with digital text

  • summarizing - realizing what is important about text and state it in their own words

  • dealing with graphic information - readers need to understand how to use this info and what it's for

  • locating info - learning where to find info in book (table of contents, glossary, internet)

  • critically evaluating information - reader must assess the credibility of information (print and digital)

Selecting a Reading Curriculum:

• The reader will be the focus of planning and selecting material. interests, reading, level, background knowledge, and strengths and weaknesses must be considered

• also need to look at reading selections, genres, what will motivate students to read, and what will give students purpose to read

Comprehension Curriculums:

• curriculum includes:

  • 1. standards and objectives.

  • 2. text that will be read

  • 3. instructional methods

Basal Reading Programs:

• a basal reading program is a sequence of texts and lessons that develop students' skills, strengths, and knowledge

• has a scope and sequence of what should be taught

• usually only has 3 levels of reading (beginning, at grade level, above grade level)

• the teacher helps students apply skills and strategies as well as teaches them

• after reading, the student review text and engage in skill practice over text

• should be used selectively

Basal Reading Exploration:

1. locate scope and sequences

2. locate vocab section. how is vocab taught?

3. locate comprehension section. how is comprehension taught?

4. what 3 teaching levels does the program cover?

5. does the program support ELL learners?

6. what other components does the program offer?

Guided Reading:

• consists of shared reading, guided reading, and independent reading

• shared reading - reading a text together (whole class instruction)

• guided reading - small groups. teacher chooses books at student's appropriate grade level. meets with student regularly. teach reading and comprehension strategies

• independent reading - goal of the program

Science of Reading:

• the SOR focuses on simple view of reading

• word recognition X language comprehension = reading comprehension

• reading comprehension should begin early (comprehension modeling, text structures)

Thematic Curriculum:

• a thematic approach is when texts, discussions, goals and writing are all integrated around a theme

• units of instruction. one topic is carried throughout the curriculum

• instructional sequence follows demands of texts, not a scope and sequence

Example:

• science - build a house out of straw, sticks, bricks. blow down houses with blow dryer

• math - measure and weigh houses

• social studies - research how house are made

• writing - re write the 3 little pigs' stories

• reading - compare/contrast different versions of the 3 little pigs' stories

• art - make a big bad wolf mask

• technology - make a presentation on 3 little pigs

Scaffolded Reading Experience:

• takes students through prereading, during reading, and post reading phases of a text reading

• can be implemented in any reading situation

• is based on the notion of scaffolding

• focuses on purpose, selection, and the reader

Pre-Reading Activities:

1. motivating and setting purposes for reading

2. activating background knowledge

3. building text specific knowledge (knowing about the type of text that is being read)

4. pre-teaching vocab and concepts

5. pre-questioning, predicting, and direction setting

During Reading Activities:

• reading the text - can be done silently or orally (younger)

• guided comprehension - students read part of the text, then stop to discuss it. teacher then guides understanding of text. students should paraphrase what was read, clarify misunderstandings and make inferences

Post Reading Activities:

• encourages students to do something with the material they just read

• 1. questioning - encourages students to think about what they read and elaborate on what they read

• 2. writing - students write down what they have read and add their opinions

• 3. drama - act out story, art, music, dance

• 4. reteaching

Collect - Interpret-Apply the CIA Approach:

• is designed to teach students how to read a novel or non-fiction book and transfer their knowledge to independent reading

• 1st student engages in an active read aloud with a novel. then they transfer what they have learned to another novel or a literature circle

• read aloud is broken into 4 parts:

  • student collects info such as plot, characters, setting, and problem

  • reader infers character traits

  • reader follows authors line of thinking

  • reader reflects on what they have read

• follows a certain sequence

• students keep notes and conference with each other

• book clubs

• literature circles - groups of students who come together to discuss a text they have all chosen to read

• students read the book silently. then each student takes a specific role as they come together to discuss the book

• student led discussion

Book Club and Book Club Plus:

• students work in 4 quadrants call Vygotsky Space

• quadrant 1- (public and social) whole class setting in which student learn literacy skills, strategies and teacher instruction takes place

• quadrant 2- (social and private) gives students an opportunity to use what they have learned in quadrant 1

• quadrant 3- (private and individualized) transform privately what they have learned

• quadrant 4- (individual and public) publication of privately activity occurs (writing books, book clubs, authors chair)

Independent Reading:

• important for children to choose what they want to read

• read for entertainment and enjoyment

• helps build fluency, vocab, and knowledge

Comprehending Informational Text:

• informational text is more difficult for students to comprehend

• 1. it requires more and deeper prior knowledge

• 2. students have less experience with this type of reading

• 3. informational text comes in various structures

3 types of knowledge for Informational Text:

1. word knowledge (vocab)

2. domain knowledge (fluency, vocab, comprehension)

3. text structure knowledge (knowledge about the text)

Build Knowledge:

• conceptual knowledge - to build this, teachers need to discover what knowledge students need

• need to build background knowledge

  • reading aloud

  • watching and discussing a video

  • brainstorming

  • K-W-L charts

Text Structure Knowledge:

• informational text comes in 5 different structures

  • Description

  • sequential or chronological order

  • cause and effect

  • compare/contrast

  • problem/solution