If you are a student looking to attain a 7 in Ib history historiography in all of your assessed essays is essential. It is very difficult to get anything higher than a 6 on an essay which does not engage with the subject's historiography?

And this is that no matter how verifiable, how widely acceptable or checkable, history remains inevitably a personal construct, a manifestation of the historian’s perspective as a ‘narrator’. Unlike direct memory (itself suspect) history relies on someone else’s eyes and voice; we see through an interpreter who stands between past events and our readings of them. Of course, as Lowenthal says, written history ‘in practice’ cuts down the historian’s logical freedom to write anything by allowing the reader access to his/her sources, but the historian’s viewpoint 14 what history is and predilections still shape the choice of historical materials, and our own personal constructs determine what we make of them. The past that we ‘know’ is always contingent upon our own views, our own ‘present’. Just as we are ourselves products of the past so the known past (history) is an artefact of ours. Nobody, however immersed in the past, can divest himself/ herself of his/her own knowledge and assumptions. To explain the past, Lowenthal notes, ‘historians go beyond the actual record to frame hypotheses in present day modes of thought . . . “we are moderns and our words and thought can not but be modern”, noted Maitland, “it is too late for us to be early English”’.6 There are, then, few limits to the shaping power of interpretive, imagining words. ‘Look’ says the poet Khlebnikov in his Decrees To The Planets, ‘the sun obeys my syntax’.7 ‘Look’, says the historian, ‘the past obeys my interpretation’

overview of historiographical terms for use at IB level:

1. column: importance of historical sources.

2. column: schools of historiography

3. column: philosophical viewpoint

4. column: historical method / theory / approach 

• Question 1: Comprehension of sources
• Question 2: Evaluation of one source for value and limitations
• Question 3: Comparison of two sources
• Question 4: Synthesizing sources and own knowledge in an analytical essay question

• Question 1: 5 marks
• Question 2: 4 marks
• Question 3: 6 marks
• Question 4: 9 marks

• HL: here

• SL: here

• William I. 
• Henry I. 
• Matilda the Empress and Geoffrey V. Plantagenet (coung of Anjou) 

1. Adela and Stephan of Blois (= temporally County of Blois)
2. Matilda the Empress (= Duchy of Normandy and Maine) and Geoffrey V. Plantagenet (= County of Anjou).

• Monarchs: At the top of the Feudal Hierarchy was the king. This is where Richard I would be. Monarchs owned land, vast amounts of riches and wielded immense power. They had the authority and capacity to reward people with positions of power. The Monarch was sovereign which meant he decided the nature of governance and the laws to be passed. Much of the hos income was through taxes or acquisition of property (money, land, etc.).

• Barons: these were the wealthy category of people who owned great amounts of land given to them by the king (sometimes referred to as tenants-in-chief) but never worked on it. They would pretty much own the land for life. They were granted the land as a reward for their fidelity to the king when conquering territories in order to help him administer the kingdom. They would also ensure the monarch had support from sufficient numbers of knights in order to protect the monarch's interests. Thus, the baron's rank and status were not far below the monarch's.

• Knights: In most cases, knights were younger sons of barons (the nobility but not always so) who were sent on training to become fighters and worthy of acquiring an elite title. The feudal system allowed knights who were successful in their training and achievement to gain land for military service. A portion of land (called a fief) would be granted by the king to a successful knight who had performed well during battle(s). This reward would be granted in exchange for his services. Thus, knights in exchange would swear fealty or an oath to be loyal to the King. Something is also known as homage. Fealty and homage were key elements within feudalism as it allowed control and subservience.

• Villeins: these were unfree peasants and comprised much of the population of England at that time. They worked on their landlord's land (labor service) and in return, they were allowed to use a segment of it to live off. They had minimal rights and needed permission from their landlord for rights that we would today consider basic and unquestionable. For example, villeins could not leave their village (manor) without permission from their lord and they could be bought and sold.

• Homage - lenní hold (Homidž) - was the ceremony in which a feudal tenant or vassal pledged reverence and submission to his feudal lord, receiving in exchange the symbolic title to his new position (investiture). 

• Liege lord - lenní pán (= unconditional bond between a man and his overlord)

• Oath of fealty - přísaha věrnosti

• Tenant - nájemce

• Courtier - dvořan

1. methods
2. weapons
3. tactic
4. effectiveness
5. organisation

• In August 1175: Richard captured Castillon-sur-Agen. It attracted attention because it was a strongly built castle and its defensive position was considered to be formidable. It was not a simple victory for Richard. A siege was necessary, but perhaps because of its strength and position, it appears that he managed to take it in a manner that increased his reputation as a warrior. It was the first successful siege undertaken by Richard.

• In the spring of 1176: Richard defeated the petty lord Aimar V of Limousin and count Vulgrin of Angoulême, whose armies were made up mostly of Brabançons (mercenary troops), in what was to be the only pitched battle he was to fight prior to his departure on crusade.

• In July 1176: Richard marched on to Limoges and subdued it.

• By December 1176: Richard was wielding effective power in the southern territories of His father's kingdom.

• Who were the main individuals involved?

• Which places were particularly important in the Third Crusade?
  
  
• What were the major turning points of the Third Crusade?
  
  
• Was the Third Crusade a success?

• The situation in Palestine after the battle of Hattín - map
• Crusaders states before (green) and after the crusade (orange) - map here

• Causes: make sure you have covered these events: the rise of Saladin, battle of Hattin (1187), and fall of Jerusalem.

• Causes: make sure you know the factors that shaped the Third Crusade

1. siege of Acre (summary)
2. the conflict between Conrad of Montferrat and Guy de Lusignan
3. march on Jaffa (see this plan)
4. battle of Arsuf (1191) - see this video.
5. Third crusade - summary here

Narcissism = Richard's conflict with Leopold V of Austria -  He as commander of the German contingent in Palestine, demanded rights equal to those of the two kings (Richard and Philip) but was rejected. When the banners of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, England and France and Leopold's ducal flag were raised in the city by Leopold's cousin, Marquis Conrad of Montferrat, Richard removed Leopold's colours. 

• Jamuka - Mr. Tomášek
• Mongol conquest of Western Xia - Sam
• War in Jin China - Vašek
• Fall of Khwarezm - Arielle 

Early in his rise to power, Chinggis attempted immediately to break down the tribal groups that joined him, because he felt that loyalty in the tribal group would belong to the tribal leader rather than to himself. He wanted to eliminate any feeling of tribal identity and convert it to a Mongol identity — a unit that would be much larger, greater than that of the tribe, wherein the loyalty would remain with him, rather than with a tribal leader. Thus, when a tribe did join him, he quickly dispersed its members through the various units that he controlled

• Text here
• Read the introduction and than four types of military tactics. Be ready to explain your four examples to your classmates:

1. Yannick 11-12
2. Anne 7-8
3. Vašek 9-10
4. Honza 3-4
5. Arielle 5-6
6. Jitka 1-2

• The first was that he united the tribes of Mongolia into one nation 
• The second was that he introduced a writing system into Mongolian society and forced the Mongolian nobility to become literate.
• The last were institutions that he imposed on the Mongols that lasted well beyond his death. 

• The major social unit of Mongol society remained the family whether nuclear, reconstituted or polygamous as marriage was the institution that marked adulthood . The next major social unit was the clan or sub-clan (i.e. kinship) where groups claimed patrilineal descent from a common ancestor (known as obogh).

• Society remained largely patriarchal, patrilineal and patrilocal. Women generally remained within the domestic structure as well as social etiquettes and customs of the steppe region. However, Genghis Khan did permit remarriages for widows which was considered taboo.

• Yasa (more in presentation)

• Harsh laws
• Treaties
• Invasion
• Taxes
• Yam system

• These taxes were collectively called "qubchur". As the Mongols extended their conquests gaining new territories, these qubchur were formally levied on both conquered and converted peoples as well as nomadic and sedentary peoples.

overview of historiographical terms for use at IB level:

1. column: importance of historical sources.

2. column: schools of historiography

3. column: philosophical viewpoint

4. column: historical method / theory / approach 

• nature of the power
• administration of the empire
• the role of nobility and officials
• the enforcement of the law and the role of the law (Canon and secular law)
• expansion
• the reaction on the external and the internal threats
  • rebellion of the Norman or Anglo-Saxon nobility
  • the Church
  • succession and rebellion 1173/4
  • France and Louis VII

• Caesaropapism
• Pontifex maximus
• patriarch of Constantinople (in Byzantine Empire, not today)

•  Administration and interpretation of law 
•  Expansion of dynasties/kingdoms: reasons for expansion; methods used to expand power; invasion and settlement 
•  Methods of government and administration 

Success for Basil depended on faultless organisation. The army must act as a single, perfectly coordinated body. When the battle began, he forbade any soldier to break ranks. Heroics were punished with instant dismissal. His men complained about their master's endless inspections, but they gave him their trust because they knew that he never undertook an operation until he was certain of victory.

Basil had devoted all his energies to the business of ruling; he had never married, spent most of his time on or near the frontiers, developed a war machine of terrifying efficiency, coveted autocracy, but despised its outward symbols. He crushed rebellions, subdued the feudal landowners, conquered the enemies of the Empire, notably in the Danubian provinces and the East. Everywhere the might of Roman arms was respected and feared. The treasury was overflowing with the accumulated plunder of Basil's campaigns. Even the lamp of learning, despite the emperor's known indifference, was burning still, if somewhat dimly. The lot of ordinary folk in Constantinople must have been pleasant enough. For most of them life was happy and colorful, and if the city's defensive fortifications were at some points in disrepair they had no cause to dread attacks.

The military success of Basil II would not be possible without the contribution of Nikephoros and Johanes.

1. The Black Death: that decimated the Eurasian population weakening the Mongol Golden Horde, adversely hitting regional trade, agricultural production slowed, urbanisation diminished and people retreated into semi-nomadic lifestyles.
2. The collapse of the Khanates: where the Iranian IL-Khanate was crumbling, the northern Mongol Golden Horde was weakened and the Chaghatai Khanate of central Asia had fragmented.
3. The Seljuq empire: had collapsed into tiny Turkish emirates.

1. Lack of determination, ferocity and "iron will" in Timur's descendants.
2. Rebellion on the margins of the empire due to lack of control from the central administration.
3. Lack of charisma and powerful personality in Timur's descendants.
4. Internal dynastic disputes among Timur's descendants.

• Book - History of Civilizations of Central Asia (p. 323-350), voluntary (p. 350-364) - here

• Article - 10 Terrors Of The Tyrant Tamerlane - here

• Article - Biography of Tamerlane, 14th Century Conqueror of Asia - here

1. Compare and contrast the nature of the power of two rulers
2. With reference to two examples, to what extent did dynasties and/or rulers overcome the challenges they faced
3. With reference to two rulers, compare and contrast the methods used to consolidate their rule
4. To what extent did one ruler overcome the internal and external challenges to their power?
5. To what extent were two rulers successful in achieving their aims
6. „Governing institutions relied more on religious law than on secular law.”  Discuss with reference to two dynastic states
7. Evaluate the effectiveness of two rulers, each chosen from a different region, in resolving issues of succession
8. Discuss the reasons why two rulers, each from a different region, expanded their power. 
9. Evaluate the importance of developments in the administration and interpretation of the law in two dynasties/kingdoms. 

1. Death: some historians estimate he massacred a total of 13 million people over 35 years of campaigning.
2. Destruction: Timur's campaigns involved razing cities completely to the ground.
3. Construction: Timur's life witnessed a flowering of art, architecture, culture and commerce - primarily in the capital city of his empire Samarqand.

Unlike Genghis Khan, however, Timur conquered not to open trade routes and protect his flanks, but to loot and pillage. The Timurid Empire did not long survive its founder because he rarely bothered to put any governmental structure in place after he destroyed the existing order. While Timur professed to be a good Muslim, he obviously felt no compunction about destroying the jewel-cities of Islam and slaughtering their inhabitants. Damascus, Khiva, Baghdad... these ancient capitals of Islamic learning never really recovered from Timur's attentions. His intent seems to have been to make his capital at Samarkand the first city in the Islamic world.
Kallie Szczepanski

The markets of Samarkand are amply stored with merchandise imported from distant and foreign countries. From Russia and Tartary come leathers and linens, from Cathay silk stuffs that are the finest in the whole world, and of these, the best are those that are plain without embroideries. Thence too is brought musk which is found in no other land but Cathay [actually, Tibet was the source par excellence of musk], with balas rubies and diamonds which are more frequently to be met with in those parts than elsewhere, also pearls, lastly rhubarb with many other spiceries. From India there are brought to Samarkand the lesser spiceries, which indeed are the most costly of the kind, such as nutmegs and cloves and mace with cinnamon both in the flower and as bark, with ginger and manna; all these with many other kinds that are never to be found in the markets of Alexandria.

The empire that Timur had built could not be kept together by his descendants, none of whom shared the same iron will that he had possessed. As had happened with Chingiz Khan's empire, factions soon developed, and vassals on the periphery of the Timurid domains quickly seized their chance to assert their independence. Shortly after Timur's death, little was left of the former empire except for Transoxiana and Afghanistan. However, although the size of the Timurid empire was drastically reduced, his successors went on to usher in the Muslim equivalent of the European Renaissance, centered in the cities of Samarkand and Herat.
 Mark Dickens

• In this way, the ideology of communism came to represent a way to reject the West while also surpassing its achievements.

• Radical anti-imperialism dominated the Chinese intellectual tradition and slowly evolved into a fierce nationalist fervor which influenced Mao's philosophy immensely and was crucial in adapting Marxism to the Chinese model.

• the Treaty of Versailles aroused a wave of bitter nationalist resentment in Chinese intellectuals as lands formerly ceded to Germany in Shandong were—without consultation with the Chinese—transferred to Japanese control rather than returned to Chinese sovereignty

• The negative reaction culminated in the 4 May Incident in 1919 during which a protest began with 3,000 students in Beijing displaying their anger at the announcement of the Versailles Treaty's concessions to Japan. 

• There still was no centralized government, with the warlords continuing to dominate much of the country.

• Monarchy was not able to restore the order.

• Mao in his home in Hunan witnessed the
  excesses of one of the most brutal warlords, Zhang ‘the Venomous’ Jinghui. 

• An estimated 21,000 people were executed in Hunan for offences against the regime and Mao became instrumental in
  organizing a student movement to demand the removal of Zhang.

• Used by the communist and nationalists.

• Example: In the north, Feng Yuxiang, a warlord and supporter of the GMD, established a military government according to these principles. In the south, there was another government under the leadership of Sun Yat-sen, who had growing ties with the Comintern and the Soviet Union, where Sun’s Three Principles were seen as akin to socialism.

• the New Tide Society, was set up in 1918 at Peking University, where Mao was a library assistant

• The Communist Party of China was founded by Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao in the French concession of Shanghai in 1921 as a study society and informal network.

• Mao set up a Changsha branch, also establishing a branch of the Socialist Youth Corps and a Cultural Book Society which opened a bookstore to propagate revolutionary literature throughout Hunan.

• Mao said "The peasants are the sea; we are the fish."

yield must be increased and the surpluses will pay the industrialization.

sequential collectivization (preferred by Mao)

• the growth of bureaucracy
• the emergence of privileged professional elites
• new economic inequalities
• a growing gulf between urban and rural areas

Historiography -It was the scale of the criticism that the Hundred Flowers unleashed that took him aback. He had not realized the scale of the dissatisfaction with the party that the campaign had revealed.... Mao crushed those he thought were opposed to him.
Michael Lynch

Historiography - Having effectively silenced all real and potential critics, Mao moved forward with plans for the rapid shift of all China to the commune system. An opportunity for open discussion was lost. China would now begin a great leap forward to catch up with European powers like Britain in just 15 years.
Adam Berson

Net grain exports, principally to the U.S.S.R., rose from 2.7 million tons in 1958 to 4.2 million in 1959, and in 1960 fell only to the 1958 level. In 1961, 6.8 million tons were actually imported, up from 66,000 in 1960, but this was still too little to feed the starving. Aid from the United States was refused for political reasons. The rest of the world, which could have responded easily, remained ignorant of the scale of the catastrophe. Aid to the needy in the countryside totaled less than 450 million yuan per annum, or 0.8 yuan per person, at a time when one kilo of rice on the free market was worth 2 to 4 yuan. Chinese Communism boasted that it could move mountains and tame nature, but it left these faithful to die.
Jean Margolin

• p. 121-128
• source B. on p.  123
• source A and B on p. 125
• source A and B on p. 128

1) Problems of Strategy in Guerrilla War (1938) - Mao wrote that “China’s revolutionary war is waged in the specific environment of China and so it has its own specific circumstances and nature… we must value more the experience of China’s revolutionary war because there are many factors specific to the Chinese Revolution and the Chinese Red Army”

2) On New Democracy (1940) - Mao outlined his plans for a ‘dictatorship of the people’ or ‘democratic dictatorship’. In this system, the people were involved in grassroots democratic processes but the party maintained total control at the higher levels (= inspiration in Leninism - see democratic centralism) .

Similarly, Mao’s theory of the ‘mass line’ – which argued that the party should “listen attentively to the voice of the masses” – sounded democratic in theory but was authoritarian in practice.

• p. 129-132
• source A,B,C on p. 130
• activity on p. 131 + comments
• presentation - here
• historiography below

• additional summary - text

• summary - here

• Alternate history: What if the Communists Lost the Chinese Civil War? - here (what do you think about this vision, it is realistic or just a crazy fan-fiction, is alternate history more speculative fiction than science?)

• Meisner has seen the victory of the centre-right of the CCP as Thermidorian reaction (similar to what had happened in French Revolution in 1794 where radicals were overthrown by more conservative leaders.

• Meisner believed that it was the growing expansion of Party and state bureucratic centralism after 1961 that worried Mao as he feared this social strata was rising above society and becoming the dominant force in China – and was using its growing power to emphasise order and stability over the revolutionary goals of 1949.

• Historians such as Meisner see Mao´s anti-bureuratism as stemming mainly from the influence of anarchist ideas during his pre-Marxist youth, and from his attraction to the more anti-authoritarian aspects of Marxism.
  
  
• However, other historians see his 1960s campaign against bereaucracy merely as a way of crushing his political opponents and re-establishing his personal authority.

• Mao worried of return of capitalism and  he was suspicious of experts – he believed that the Soviet model of industrialization was not appropriate for a country lie China. He had come to the conclusion that the Russian Revolution had been undermined by the reliance on experts and administrators.

• This led to a new class of bureaucrats, who gave themselves privileges and under Khrushchev had begun to restore aspects of capitalism.

• Four Old – capitalism still existing in old ideas, old culture, old customs and old habits.

At the end of 1966 and the beginning of 1967, inspired by the Maoist theory of continuous revolution and the vision of a Commune-type state structure, the rebel workers in Shanghai, together with rebellious students and revolutionary party cadres and leaders, took the bold initiative to overthrow the old power structure from below. On Feb.5, 1967, the Shanghai workers established the Shanghai Commune modeled upon the Paris Commune. This became known as the January Storm. After Mao's death in 1976, the communist party and government in China has rewritten history, attacking the Cultural Revolution. And the Shanghai Commune has barely been mentioned in China, let alone careful evaluation and in-depth study

• Detachment of Women - written by Jiang Qing, the wife of Chairman Mao Zedong.

• it was one of the Eight Model Operas which dominated the national stage during the Cultural Revolution.

• This ballet was performed for U.S. President Richard Nixon on his visit to China in February 1972.

• video - here

• Accommodation (1949-1957)
• Assimilation (1958-1976)

Article 14: “The Soviet government of China recognizes the right of self-determination of the national minorities in China, their right to complete separation from China, and to the formation of an independent state for each national minority. All Mongolians, Tibetans, Miao, Yao, Koreans, and others living on the territory of China shall enjoy the full right to self-determination, i.e. they may either join the Union of Chinese Soviets or secede from it and form their own state as they may prefer."
The Constitution of the Chinese Soviet Republic (also known as the Jiangxi Soviet) 

Article 50: All nationalities within the boundaries of the People’s Republic of China are equal. They shall establish unity and mutual aid among themselves, and shall oppose imperialism and their own public enemies so that the People’s Republic of China will become a big fraternal and cooperative family composed of all its nationalities. Greater Nationalism and chauvinism shall be opposed. Acts involving discrimination, oppression  and splitting of the unity of the various nationalities shall be prohibited
Constitution of PRC 1954

It is still necessary to have universities: here I refer mainly to colleges of science and engineering. However, it is essential to shorten the length of schooling, revolutionize education, put proletarian politics in command and take the road of the Shanghai Machine Tools Plant in training technicians from among the workers. Students should be selected from among the workers and peasants with practical experience, and they should return to production after a few years of study.

• Diseases such as smallpox, cholera, typhus and leprosy were eliminated and others such as TB greatly reduced
• Attacks on drug suppliers and criminal gangs lowered the numbers of drug addicts
• Communes established medical clinics
• 800 Western-style hospitals were built
• Trained doctors rose from 40,000 in 1949 to 150,000 in 1965 (= like in the US).
• The barefoot doctors, set up during the Cultural Revolution, did help provide basic care to rural areas
• Life expectancy rose

• The Antis campaigns of the 1950s and the Cultural Revolution attacked the medical profession as bourgeois and many doctors were denounced
• Inequalities remained between rural and urban China
• The Great Leap Forward led to malnutrition and starvation
• The 'barefoot' doctors could only provide rudimentary health care
• There was underinvestment in hospitals; only 1.3% of GDP was ever spent on healthcare (= in the US it was 7% in 1949 and 15% in 1965).

• Ding Ling: she was linked to Peng Dehuai. An early Chinese feminist writer, who openly accused Mao and CCP leaders of double standards = a male-dominated system and exploiting women by party members in order to enjoy comfortable domestic life. In 1957 she was expelled from CCP as a "rightist" and imprisoned during the Cultural revolution. In 1979 the membership was restored. (Counterargument: The status of women cannot be changed over one year. Men were not used to doing women's jobs and vice versa).
• Xiufen Lu - claimed that the Communists exaggerated the extent of the subordination of women in pre-revolutionary China in order to make their reforms after 1949 more significant.

2. Getting the question right

•  Is your research question clearly stated? 
• Have you identified and clearly explained the relevance of your two chosen sources to your research question? 
• Have you analyzed the value and limitations of both sources from origin, purpose, and content? 

• Does your investigation follow a clear, coherent structure? 
• Does your investigation include a well-developed analysis which is clearly focused on the stated question? 
• Does your investigation effectively use evidence from a range of sources to support an argument? 
•  Does your investigation evaluate different perspectives relevant to your question? 
•  Does your investigation lead to a reasoned conclusion that is consistent with the evidence and arguments presented?  Does your investigation use consistent and appropriate citations using one standard method? 

• Does your reflection focus clearly on what the investigation revealed about methods used by historians? 
• Does your reflection demonstrate a clear awareness of the challenges facing historians and/or the limitations of the methods used by historians? 
• Does your reflection provide examples which show an explicit connection between the reflection and the rest of the investigation? 

• Have you stated the research question and total word count (2200 max) on the title page? 
• Have you consistently used one standard referencing method? 
• Are the books you will need available in the Czech Republic?
• Do you have proper language skills?
• Have you included it in your bibliography? 

• Quite stabile political situation (only short lived authoritarian regimes or military juntas - list here)
• Progressive politics (1877 – Women were allowed to attend university, 1935/49 – Universal suffrage).  
• Export oriented economy (copper and nitrate) and rising middle class, but high inflation (25-80%)
• Army is apolitical (= constitutionalism and Constitution 1925).
• More than 30 years of democratic tradition and peaceful transition of power!
• Land reform 1967 = universal agreement (Socialists, the Church, landowners, Christian democrats.
• Urban society (76%). 

1. 1938-46 – Communists, Socialists, and Radicals form Popular Front coalition and introduce economic policies based on US New Deal = massive industrialization and urbanization.
2. 1948–1970 - Liberal, Christian democratic period. Middle class is preferred at the expense of the farmers and "new townsmen" (former farmers who moved to the towns.
3. 1970–1973 - Allende´s period (slide 7–9).

• The eldest son of middle class Catholics spent first fifty eight years of his life wallowing in obscurity, only to suddenly rise to infamy.
• Nothing to suggest this young boy would one day drown his nation in a sea of blood.
• His father was a local customs official descended from French settlers.
• His early life was quite privileged - he was even enrolled in Sagrados Corazones private school, one the most elite institutions in the country.
• Terrible student - nickname donkey.
  By the time he graduated, Pinochet had decided he was going to be a soldier, despite of his father´s wish.
• It was quite rocky road - the military actually rejected his application twice (accepted in 1933 ti War Academy in Santiago).
• By the time he graduated with a commission in the infantry WWII was already looming. Chile decided to sit the war out and only symbolically declared war on Germany during the Endgame. In contrast, Argentina and Chile received very little military aid, because for most of the war neither bowed to American demands they sever relations with the Axis powers.
  Chile broke relations with Germany and declared war in 1943; during World War II, many German Jews settled in Chile, fleeing the Holocaust, while foreign citizens suspected of Nazi sympathies were sent to the Pisaqua internment camp. After the war, many leaders and collaborators from Nazi Germany sought to take refuge in the southern region of the country, fleeing justice against them, for example Walter Rauff a mid-ranking SS commander in Nazi Germany and the man responsible for creating the mobile gassing vans. He escaped to Ecuador after the war, and later found refuge in Chile with Germans willing to hide him. Under Augusto Pinochet's military dictatorship, Rauff may have served as an advisor to the Chilean secret police, DINA. 
• Pinochet spent his best fighting years kicking his heels in Santiago.
• Post War - rise of Communism and radical reaction of Latin Americas government.
• By 1948 the Chilean government was keeping Communists in internment camps.
• Pinochet was a chief officer in one of these camps - One socialist senator decided to make a personal inspection of the internment to see if the prisoners are threaten well = Pinoched threatened to shoot the senator - it was senator Allende, the future president of Chile.
  
  
• Both were born in middle class, with strong relations to their mothers. 
• Compare to Pinochet, who was in the military, Allende´s ideology was shaped by many factors = Juan De Marchi (= he was an Italian-born anarchist, best known for his friendship and influential role in the development of Allende's political identity. He was 63 and worked as shoemaker.)
• In 1933 Allende in 1933 cofounded Chile first Socialist party.
• First president candidacy in 1958 = very close - he lost by 33 000 votes = good hope for the future.
• But he didn't count with Fidel Castro - winning as socialist was impossible due to Red Scare. His third candidacy in 1964 was a failure, also because of his open admiration of Castro.
• 1970 - he won. Chilean economy was struggle and there was widespread discontent a hunger for change. - he won 36,6% a tiny mandate.
• Big alarm for the US! 
  
  

• In January 1971, Pinochet was promoted to division general and was named General Commander of the Santiago Army Garrison. 
• 1972 - Appointed as supreme authority of Santiago province, imposing a military curfew in the process, which was later lifted. 
• However, on 2 December 1971, following a series of peaceful protests against economic policies of Allende, the curfew was re-installed, all protests prohibited, with Pinochet leading the crackdown on anti-Allende protests.
• Allende had one ally - general Carlos Prats - He wasn´t happy about Allende presidency, but he disliked also the idea that the army would overthrone him. Till Prats was in service, no coup had a chance - for example El Tanquetazo a coup from 1973 a monumental failure. Pinochet got wind, he made sure his garrison came out on Allende´s side.
• It was a moment, that convinced Carlos Prats that Pinochet was on the Constitutionalists side, so when he resigned a month later, he made sure Pinochet replaced him.
• 1973 - Pinochet was appointed commander-in-chief of the Army by President Salvador Allende.
• That was a surprise for the public - Prats had just promoted the most unremarkable man in Chile to a position of remarkable power. (Even his own wife thought it is a joke).
• Less than a month later, the Chilean military deposed Allende.

The rise of Pinochet was caused by the combination of many factors. As a result of Allende’s economic reforms, the scarcity of available goods due to the actions of Allende’s opposition, and the cut-off of American and international aid, inflation in Chile skyrocketed increasing from 45.9% to 163.4% between July and December 1972 (Valenzuela)

The United States government, unhappy with the existence of a Marxist government in what it considered its backyard, was also responsible for disrupting Allende’s administration. (R. Burbach)

1. Cutting off virtually all bilateral funding, 
2. Pressurizing international agencies like the World Bank to stop making loans to Chile.

Politics doesn't interest me, but as a good citizen, I feel free to express my opinions and to censure the government. Democracy, which is so loudly proclaimed by the deluded is an absurdity in our countries, flooded as they are with vices and with their citizens lacking all sense of civic virtue, the prerequisite to establishing a real Republic. But monarchy is not the American ideal either; if we get out of one terrible government just to jump headlong into another, what will we have gained? The Republican system is the one that we must adopt, but do you know how I interpret it for our countries? A strong central government whose representatives will be men of true virtue and patriotism, and who thus can direct the citizens along the path of order and progress.
Diego Portales

• What was Operation Condor?
• Which countries were involved?
• Role of the US (CIA)
• What was the role of Pinochet in this Operation?
• Operation Condor in Chile - impacts, victims 
• Comparison with one other Latin American country (for example Argentina)

• Examine the role of DINA in Pinochet´s campaigns against his opponents.
• Present the life and activities of Manuel Contreras after 1973.
• Operation Colombo and Caravan of Death.
• Assassinations of Orlando Letelier and Carlo Prats.

• shock therapy (shock doctrine)
• Latin American Debt Crisis (in Chile) 
• Inflation + devaluation
• protectionism

• unlimited increase of state, bank, and household debt (= trust in unlimited growth and power of the free hand of the market + generous foreign loans) 
• the overvalued Chilean peso (fixed exchange rate = 39 Peso for 1 USD), which had been helped by being pegged to the US dollar, and to the high-interest rates in Chile, which would have hampered investment in productive activities.

• Milton Friedman
• Chicago boys
• Neoliberalism
• Chilean Economic Miracle

• economic liberalization
• privatization of state-owned companies
• stabilization of inflation
• diversification of Chilean export (fruit, timber, wood, fish)

... there is little disagreement as to what caused the observed improvement in the area of child health and nutrition...It would be hard to attribute the impressively steady decline in infant mortality ... (despite several major economic recessions) ... to anything else than the maintenance of extensive public support measures

In short, thanks to the free-market reforms introduced by the Chicago Boys and maintained by the democratic regimes that came later, Chile became the most prosperous country in Latin America, which mostly benefitted the poorest members of the population.

• During the Cultural Revolution, in November 1966, Mao's wife Jiang Qing headed up the 17-strong Central Cultural Revolutionary Committee which also consisted of her closest Shanghai political associates: Yao Wenyuan, Wang Hongwen, and Zhang Chunqiao.  

• They became known as the Gang of Four; they were Mao's strongest supporters during the Cultural Revolution and they favored a revolutionary approach to politics and the economy.  

• However, their power base was mainly within the cultural and media organizations. They had little support in the PLA or the Party as a whole.  
• Although their excesses were eventually brought to an end by the PLA in 1969, Jiang retained her influence. 

• After 1970 there were increasing ideological splits in the party which was exacerbated by China's new relations h the USA.  

• The fundamental difference was whether politics or the economy was more important and whether capitalist techniques could be used to modernize the economy:

'It is true that he made mistakes during the Cultural Revolution, but, if we judge his activities as a whole, his contribution to the Chinese Revolution far outweighs his mistakes' 

• Pragmatism
• Utilitarianism
• No ideology: Although there were still periodic campaigns against "bourgeois liberalization" or "spiritual pollution," overall the government relaxed its hold over cultural affairs. 
• Cult of money and modernity
• Efficiency over ideology
• Modernity, but not capitalist road (= state capitalism?)

• The goal of the "Four Modernizations" was to strengthen the sectors of agriculture, industry, technology, and defense.   

• Class struggle was no longer the central focus as it had been under Mao.  The change in political climate was reflected in the propaganda posters of the 70s and 80s, which now promoted the creation of a society of civilized and productive citizens all working toward the welfare of the country and contributing to the modernization effort.  

• An important aspect of modernization was education.   

• Another important aspect of modernization was agriculture:

• Reforms were also implemented in urban industries to increase productivity. 

• Private businesses were allowed to operate for the first time since the Communist takeover, and they gradually began to make up a greater percentage of industrial output.

• Chinese fast-growing population was a serious threat to economic transformation. 

'Although [the decade of the 1990s] had begun in shock over the 1989 shootings in Tiananmen Square, it ended with greater prosperity for larger numbers of people, than in any other decade in the Twentieth Century.' Linda Benson, China since 1949 

[Deng's] legacy has been overshadowed in the West by the events of 1989, but of all the national leaders in the twentieth century, he did most to improve the lives of his people, who, let us not forget, make up one-fifth of humanity. Indeed, more than any other individual perhaps, he changed the course of history. Michael Wood, The Story of China

• Between 1989 and 1992, Jiang was believed to be simply a transitional figure to protect the party from a power vacuum (or even an Eastern Bloc-style collapse) until a more stable successor government to Deng Xiaoping could be put in place. Because of this, the era of the "third generation" is not regarded to have begun until 1992, with the election of the new Politburo standing committee and Jiang consolidating his power without Deng.
• These leaders were born before the revolution from 1924 to 1934 but were educated afterward before the Sino-Soviet split. 
• Most of them received education in the USSR as engineers and entered the party initially as factory managers. 
• As a result, many of them did not wield any significant political power prior to the 1980s, spending their time during the Cultural Revolution and its aftermath working for the civil infrastructure of the state and were protected from the purges, as opposed to their predecessors. 
• Unlike their predecessors, there is a split between the political and military leadership. 
• This generation continued economic development while China saw the emergence of various serious social issues. The political-ideological innovation officially associated with this period was Jiang's "Three Represents"

1. Represent the development trend of China's advanced productive forces. 
2. Represent the orientation of China's advanced culture. 
3. Represent the fundamental interests of the overwhelming majority of the Chinese people. 

• The initial members of the third generation were mostly survivors from before 1989, including Jiang Zemin, Li Peng (who continued as premier).
• Notable changes to the leadership were the elevation of Zhu Rongji in place of Li Peng as premier in 1998 and the elevation of Hu Jintao as vice president.
• Since 1982 the three most important posts were concentrated into the hands of Jiang Zemin:

1. presidency
2. the party general secretaryship
3. the chairmanship of the central military commission 

..in order to achieve the four modernizations we must keep to the socialist road, uphold the dictatorship of the proletariat, uphold the leadership of the Communist Party, and uphold Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought...The Central Committee considers that we must now repeatedly emphasize the necessity of upholding these four cardinal principles because certain people (even if only a handful) are attempting to undermine them. In no way can such attempts be tolerated..To undermine any of the four cardinal principles is to undermine the whole cause of socialism in China the whole cause of modernization'

1. What was the role of religion and race in causing the rebellion?
2. What were the impacts of the violence of the rebellion?
3. How the outcome may have undermined British rule in the long term?
4. How the outcome fostered the Independence movement?

The diverse and divisive features of Indian society and polity were heightened to promote cleavages among the people and to turn province against province, caste against caste, and class against class. Hindus against Muslims, and the princes and landlords against the nationalist movement.

• Defense of India Act 
• Home rule movement - summary
• Lucknow Pact - summary
• Montagu-Chelmsford reform

• elected provincial legislatures with control over education, health, agriculture, and local government, however, the viceroy and provincial governors had the power to veto legislation
• right to vote for provincial legislatures extended to about 5,5 million men (less than 5% of the adult male population), based on property qualifications.
• an extension of the franchise with property and income qualifications
• reserved seats in the legislatures for different religious groups
• a council of sic, three of whom would be Indian, to advise the viceroy
• the continuation of British control of security, foreign affairs, taxation (salt tax, income tax and customs duties), justice and communications.
• New structure:

Historian Bates explains that the elected provincial legislatures were given the task of collecting unpopular and antiquated taxes - land or fund any local development projects. The central government on the other hand hot its revenues from customs duties, the salt tax and income taxes which were easier to raise.

Copland suggests that this encouraged political appeals to communal values by politicians anxious to win support from their separate electorates.
Bates asserts that the act encouraged communalism and perpetuated a policy of divide and rule. He also suggests that it was cynical and undemocratic because it left working-class, tribal and peasant groups almost wholly unrepresented.

Bates - Birkenhead, the secretary of State had deliberately excluded Indians because he believed that they were incapable of agreeing on a workable political framework.
Metcalf suggests that the implications were that the Indians were still children who needed all-knowing parents to legislate for them.

The 1935 Act with its reliance on a princely bloc in an All-India Federation as a quid pro quo [favour] for central Indian responsibility was a truly conservative measure - in aim and timing. It was designed to salvage and buttress the empire, not to liquidate it: and it conceded only as much as seemed necessary to prevent destabilizing conflict or administrative paralysis.

• Worked in South Africa and experienced racial discrimination. Also witnessed first-hand use of violent methods met with brutal violent retaliation by the British.
• Rejected western culture – dressed as Indian peasant
• Changed Congress from party of the elites to a mass movement to include all classes in society.
• Wanted all religions involved.  He had gained the support of the Muslim Khalifat movement but this lost ground to Muslim League after the fall of Ottomans at the end of WW1.
• Campaigned for rights of the untouchables – this promoted a modern style state for an independent India.
• Travelled across India exploring local conditions and issues.
• Focused on self-reliance and social mobility.
• Convinced non-violence was the key method –  made it very difficult for colonial rulers to crush with force.
• Promoted building schools, hospitals and clean water
• Champaran agitation campaign in 1918 – mass disobedience – peasant farmers of Bihar forced to grow indigo instead of food crops.
• After Amritsar Massacre 1919 – launch of all India non-cooperation campaign – becomes national figure.
• Arrested and sentenced to 6 years  - not politically active until 1929.
• Effective propagandist - Salt March 1930
• Use of ‘fast’ / hunger strikes
• Led ‘Quit India’ campaign in WW2
• First to apply non-violence successfully on a huge scale.

• He did not accommodate Muslim fears of Hindu domination - he promoted single state. 
• He resigned in protest from Congress in 1934 when federated India with some Muslim autonomy considered
• His failure to compromise led to partition.
• Assassinated in 1948 by Hindu extremists for being too secular.

'..Gandhi's share in the erosion of British power should not be underestimated. He had not succeeded in 1920 - 2, in 1930 - 3 or (in circumstances in which he had far less control) in 1942, in bringing about the collapse of British rule or in winning swaraj at a single stroke. The strength and the resolution of the British Empire was too great for that and the forces of Indian opposition too weak and internally divided. But each successive campaign was a hammer-blow that further weakened British prestige and resolution...his persistently anti-colonial stance and almost unshakeable moral stature contributed enormously to the sea-change that had taken place in Indian politics since the Rowlatt Satyraraha of 1919'

• Like Gandhi he was a trained lawyer.
• Member of Indian National Congress from 1896.
• Joined Muslim League 1913 and in 1916 became president.
• Member of Home Rule League
• Initially moderate – but shifted after British did not give independence to India after First World War.
• Jinnah resigned from Congress following launch of non-cooperation campaign - disagreed with Gandhi’s method as believed it destabilised political structure.
• Promoted two state solution for India, whereas Congress promoted united independent India.
• League became another force putting pressure on British.
• From 1937 promoted League as only organization for Muslims.
• Supported British during Second World War – strengthened the position of League.
• In 1941 – newspaper set up, Dawn, to promote League’s position
• Pressured Cripps to back a two state solution
• Gandhi unable to bring Jinnah into agreement
• 16 August 1946 – Jinnah called for ‘direct action’:  strikes, protests and violence
• Congress and British accepted partition  and creation of Pakistan

• Jinnah’s promotion of the Muslim League and a two-state solution enabled the British to play Congress and the League off against each other.
• The push for direct action led to an escalation of violence.

• Relationship with Subhas Chandra Bose, leader of Azad Hind, during WW2.
• Radio broadcasts advised by Rash Behari Bose, based in Japan and the brother of Subhas Chandra - article
• Japan supported the Indian National Army
• Japan supported the Indian Independence League

• read this text: The History of Economic Development in India since Independence
• summary - video (Indian Economy 1947–1990s)

• read this text: The History of Economic Development in India since Independence
• summary - video (Indian Economy 1947–1990s)
• text about Rajiv Gandhi - here

• read this text: The History of Economic Development in India since Independence
• summary - video (Indian Economy 1947–1990s)
• summary of Rao´s economic transformation - video
• text - here

• Abolishing in 1992 the Controller of Capital Issues decided the prices and number of shares that firms could issue.
• Introducing the SEBI Act of 1992 and the Security Laws (Amendment) which gave SEBI (Securities and Exchange Board of India) the legal authority to register and regulate all security market intermediaries.
• Starting in 1994 of the National Stock Exchange as a computer-based trading system which served as an instrument to leverage reforms of India's other stock exchanges. The NSE emerged as India's largest exchange by 1996.
• Reducing tariffs from an average of 85% to 25%, and rolling back quantitative controls. (The rupee was made convertible on the trade account.)
• Encouraging foreign direct investment by increasing the maximum limit on the share of foreign capital in joint ventures from 40 to 51% with 100% foreign equity permitted in priority sectors.
• Streamlining procedures for FDI approvals, and in at least 35 industries, automatically approving projects within the limits for foreign participation.
• The dismantling of the Licence Raj.

• Nehru conducted more than 72 state visit (including the US, China, France, Britain, Indonesia, Nigeria, North and South Vietnam, Iran, Pakistan, etc.)

• coexistence
• respect for the territorial and integral sovereignty of others
• nonaggression
• non-interference with the internal affairs of others
• recognition of the equality of others.

• 1949 - London Declaration - India agreed to remain within the Commonwealth of Nations after becoming a republic in January 1950
• Reason 1: At that time the Commonwealth was little more than a debating society, but one objective was to use it as a sounding board for Third World interests.
• Reason 2: Clear need for American help in terms of aid, loans, and trade. Nehru did not want to be too indebted to the Americans, and in that sense, the British and Commonwealth connection would be something of a counterweight.

• BUT: British UN delegation openly supported Pakistan on the Kashmir issue, Britain providing military advice to Pakistan, and London supporting the Dutch efforts to crush Indonesian nationalism. 

• Nehru was an opponent of military action and military alliances. He was a strong supporter of the United Nations, except when it tried to resolve the Kashmir question (= He also used military force to annex Hyderabad in 1948 and Goa in 1961).
• He pioneered the policy of non-alignment and co-founded the Non-Aligned Movement of nations professing neutrality between the rival blocs.
• Nehru was a key organiser of the Bandung Conference of April 1955, which brought 29 newly independent nations together from Asia and Africa, and was designed to galvanise the nonalignment movement.

• Recognized the People's Republic of China (while most of the Western bloc continued relations with Taiwan).
• In 1954, Nehru signed with China the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence. Their first formal codification in treaty form was in an agreement between China and India in 1954, which recognized Chinese sovereignty over Tibet.
• Nehru argued for its inclusion in the United Nations and refused to brand the Chinese as the aggressors in their conflict with Korea.

We, who for generations had talked about and attempted in everything a peaceful way and practised non-violence, should now be, in a sense, glorifying our army, navy and air force. It means a lot. Though it is odd, yet it simply reflects the oddness of life. Though life is logical, we have to face all contingencies, and unless we are prepared to face them, we will go under. There was no greater prince of peace and apostle of non-violence than Mahatma Gandhi...but yet, he said it was better to take the sword than to surrender, fail or run away. We cannot live carefree assuming that we are safe. Human nature is such. We cannot take the risks and risk our hard-won freedom. We have to be prepared with all modern defence methods and a well-equipped army, navy, and air force." 
NEHRU

• 1956, Nehru criticized the joint invasion of the Suez Canal by the British, French, and Israelis. His role, both as Indian prime minister and a leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, was significant; he tried to be even-handed between the two sides while vigorously denouncing Anthony Eden and co-sponsors of the invasion. 
• Nehru had a powerful ally in the US president Dwight Eisenhower who, if relatively silent publicly, went to the extent of using America's clout at the International Monetary Fund to make Britain and France back down. During the Suez crisis, Nehru's right-hand man, Menon attempted to persuade a recalcitrant Gamal Nasser to compromise with the West and was instrumental in moving Western powers towards an awareness that Nasser might prove willing to compromise.

• political pragmatism damaged Indian national reputation
• partnership with non-democratic leaders (= Jaharad Ray)
• double standard policy (= Gabriela Hall)
• Nehru and his top foreign-policy aide, V.K. Krishna Menon, by contrast gained an international reputation as rude and undiplomatic. Zhou said privately, "I have never met a more arrogant man than Mr. Nehru. He was an outstanding world statesman but the world's worst diplomat."

Pakistan practiced democracy in an undemocratic ambiance. Every segment of our polity has its undemocratic disposition in practice. Democracy is more on our lips and less in run-through, another contradiction. Pakistan is a small democratic topping on a large undemocratic cake. With an unconstitutional consensus, Pakistan’s democracy is failing to build a nation – a Pakistani nation.
Dr. Hussain Shaheed Soherwordi

• Unlike the secular nationalism of most other countries, Pakistani nationalism is religious in nature of being the nationalism for the culture, traditions, languages and historical region that makes up Pakistan, inhabited by mostly Muslims.

• It is also a militarist nationalism in that it often involves the glorification of war and the military.

• It is a singular combination of philosophical, nationalistic, cultural and religious elements.

• Pakistani nationalism was based upon Islamic ideology but with the emergence of Pakistan, many more identities emerged. Muslim League’s leadership had too much love for Urdu and failed to acknowledge the other ethnic and lingual identities (From Two nations theory to One nations theory)

• Chronology and summary - here

• A major feature of Bangladeshi nationalism is the territorial boundary of Bangladesh, which emphasizes on the protection of the sovereign geographic sanctity of the state against the expansionist and colonialist forces.

• This territorial concept has been described as an inclusive idea which incorporates the association of all people living within the territory of Bangladesh, regardless their ethnicity or religion.¨

• Difference between Bengali and Bangladeshi nationalism = Removing the principle of secularism and inserting the line "absolute trust on Allah", but Rahman also promoted religious freedom in Islamic way, not a liberal secular way.

• Today the nationalism is more secular.

Historian K. M. de Silva has stated that the refusal of the Ceylon Tamils to accept minority status is one of the main causes of the break up of the Ceylon National congress.

• The establishment of a new constitution for Sri Lanka based on federal principles, with the creation of one or more Tamil states enjoying wide autonomous powers
• Parity status for Tamil alongside Sinhala as the official language of the country.
• The repeal of citizenship laws that denied Indian Tamils Sri Lankan citizenship.

Example: East Asia was gradually overtaking Sri Lanka. In 1950 Sri Lanka's un-adjusted school enrolment ratio as a share of the 5-19 year age group was 54%, India 19%, Korea 43% and the Philippines 59%. But by 1979 Sri Lanka's school enrollment rate was 74%, but the Philippines had improved to 85% and Korea was 94%. (Paul Glewwe)