How are you doing Mama

Mama Africa

Long time me no see you Mama

They took me away from you Mama

Long before I was born

They took me away from you Mama

Long before I came on in

—Andrew Tosh

Genre: Afro-Peruvian

Origin: Peru and surrounding area, 1750s.

Song: “Ruperta,” Peru Negro

West African Elements: Ostinato, percussion, and consistent rhythm

Afro-Peruvian music stems from traditional African music, mixed with Latin American culture. The birth of Afro-Peruvian music started when the first slaves were transported to Peru, as a form of resistance against the Spanish indoctrinating them into their culture. Afro-Peruvian music included mostly simple instruments, as enslaved Africans would not be able to access any professional instruments. These instruments included the Cajón, Cajîta, the Ocarina, and the Quijada. All simple instruments that anybody could make with little craftsmanship. The music traditionally includes heavy percussion and a confident singer. The singer would often yell lyrics and the drums would ease off, creating an clear ostinato effect. The key elements of African music and dance that are present in this song are the heavy swinging of the hips, loud percussion, unique rythym, and call and response. Afro-Peruvian music created hope for slaves, as they could resist the spanish culture that they were being indoctrinated into, by incorporating it into their own culture and music.

Genre: Reggae Dancehall

Origin: Jamaica, 1970’s

Song: Bam Bam, Sister Nancy

West African Elements: Virtuoso, Function, Ostinato

Dancehall music is often referred to as Reggae’s rebellious cousin. Dancehall started in small Jamaican towns, and around the 1970s, it was used as the music of the oppressed people because Jamaica’s government was unstable at the time. The less fortunate would play Dancehall in the streets of neighborhoods, and people would sing along. Furthermore, it became a voice for this group of people, relating to when enslaved people would sing songs with slow tempos. Dancehall music started becoming more popular, and it would be a piece of popular music played in dance halls around the country, where the name originated. As time passed, Dancehall turned into music with a very political message, and politicians would use it to gain supporters for their side and get their political agenda across. It has become a vital music in Jamaica, especially in nightclubs. The basics of Dancehall include a drumbeat, bass guitar, electric guitar, and scraper(two sticks rubbed together), an African instrument. The newer genre of “Rude Boy Rap'' has emerged from Dancehall and is now widely known worldwide. The song Bam Bam by Sister Nancy displays many different characteristics of African Music, including a message (function) about how much she loves her home country of Jamaica and how it is such a beautiful place. There is also Virtuoso in the song, where one artist stands out among the rest of the group in the song. Another African element in this song is Ostinato( musical or lyrical phrases are repeated). The opening melody is repeated in the song, and most of the words are also repeated.

Genre: Bossa Nova

Origins: Brazil, 1950s

Song: “Girl from Ipanema,” Antonio Carlos Jobim

West African Elements: Syncopation, Virtuoso

Bossa Nova, Portuguese for new trend, originated in Rio de Janeiro in the late 1950s as a combination of samba and jazz. The composer Antonio Carlos Jobim and the guitarist João Gilberto are often considered the founders of this style. Instrumentation in bossa nova is simple and mostly rhythm instruments such as guitar or drum so the singer can more easily improvise, and is often syncopated in 2/4 time. Bossa nova lyrics are often focused on the individual instead of social conflict and politics. In the 1960s bossa nova got very popular in the United States with even Elvis making a song loosely based on bossa nova called “Bossa Nova Baby”. The lyrics of Girl from Ipanema are by Vinicius de Moraes, a poet. In Portuguese it sounds very swinging and irregular, mimicking the girl walking by.

Gospel and Hymns

Late 18th century US

“Take My Hand Precious Lord,” Mahalia Jackson

West African elements:

Vocality, drums, and (rarely) call and response

Gospel and Hymns, or just Gospel, is a music genre that originated from African slave culture when enslavers were forcing people to convert to Christianity. It was originally used as a form of communication between the workers on plantations through the playing of drums, using virtuoso, and call and response. In the beginning of the 19th century a volume of texts titled A Collection of Spiritual Songs and Hymns Selected from Various Authors propelled Gospel to the style it’s known for today as black parishioners sung these works to the tune of popular hymns. In the 1950’s its reach increased to the white American population as skilled singers and songwriters built careers off the genre, such as Mahalia Jackson. We used her song Take My Hand Precious Lord to give an example of Gospel’s peak in the US, which includes elements dating back to the genre’s beginnings and newer additions: Vocality, wavering her voice; syncopation, piano notes conflicting with vocal notes; and function, dragging out lyrics; are mixed together to create a spiritually-crushing premise to audiences and one of Jackson’s most popular songs. The music’s success cemented her place in the world of modern black Gospel, and her work, along with the genre as a whole, continues to have a strong involvement in contemporary secular spaces.

Genre: Bachata music 

Origin: Dominican Republic, 1960’s

Song: Propuesta Indecente, Romeo Santos

West African elements: syncopation, rhythm, call and response  

Bachata is a genre of Latin music that originated in the Dominican Republic. From 1930 to 1961, under rule of the Dominican leader, Rafael Trujillo, music was only allowed to be performed in middle to high class areas of the Dominican Republic. Early bachata music had a social stigma because it developed in the poor and impoverished parts of the Dominican, which is why the genre couldn’t be performed and didn’t spread internationally until Dominicans migrated to the U.S. in the late 1960’s. There are many different types of bachata music. Some have ribald and misogynistic lyrics, while others have lyrics about love and loss. Traditional bachata music has unique tunes with acoustic sounds in the background and is often compared to American blues music. During the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, many Africans were taken to the Dominican to work on the sugar plantations. Many modern Dominicans are descended from  enslaved Africans. Because of this, there are similar rhythms and tones in bachata that were present in West African music. The bongo, acoustic guitar, and maracas are essential aesthetics to bachata music. Bachata contains elements of syncopation (intentionally playing off-beat), polythym (multiple rhythms at once), and call and response (one person leads, others follow). The bongo and call and response aspects of bachata originated in West African music and has been passed down through generations and used in modern day bachata. In the last sixty years, there has been a large increase in Dominican migration. This flow of people and cultures has been reflected in bachata music, making the genre so internationally popular. Romeo Santos is a famous bachata singer, known as the “King of Bachata”, and is renown for his fusion of styles and mixing traditional and modern bachata in his music. One of his most famous songs, entitled, “Propuesta Indecente,” has elements of polythym throughout the entire song, with different instruments, such as bongos and maracas in the background of Santos’ singing. There is emphasis on syncopation when Santos changes the rhythm of the song, and the instruments follow with an unexpected tune. Bachata music was first known as “backyard music” and has become one of the most popular styles of Latin music. 

Genre: Vodou Haiti

Origin: 17th Century, West Indies of Haiti 

Song: “Ogou Feray Ogou Batagri,” Racine Mapou De Azor

West African elements: Call and Response and Virtuoso

Haitian Vodou was a Creolized religion that originated in the West Indies of Haiti during the 17th century. Haitian Vodou is European Catholicism fused with African Spiritual tradition. Beliefs and practices of this religion were formed in one of the most brutal slave regions. Haitian Vodou rituals are centered around vodou drumming, which is extremely prevalent in this music. In this specific song, “Ogou Feray Ogou Batagri,” some West African elements included were call and response and virtuoso. You can hear the person playing the drums, saying something and then there is a response from another group of people. At certain points in the song there is a soloist singing, which fits with the West African element of virtuoso. Slave owners punished and tortured people who practiced the religion. Even though the enslaved people were punished for practicing the religion, it didn’t stop them. They practiced the religion because it brought people together, people with the same political and cultural views. Not only that, it became a space where revolt leaders could spread their message. 

Genre: Jamaican Ska

Origin: 1965 in Jamaica

Song: ‘Lucky Seven’ by Don Drummond and Tommy McCook band 

Elements of West African Music: Syncopation, Ostinato, Vocality https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s7_nZko5X1k&t=4s 

Ska first emerged in Jamaica in the late 50’s to early 60’s. Ska is mainly instrumental. Ska inspired other genres such as Reggae. Ska is categorized into 3 main periods: Original Jamaican Ska in the 60s, a revival movement in Britain in the 70s, and more modern Ska in the late 80s through 90s. Common instruments in Ska are drums, guitars, bass, a brass instrument, and keys. The genre was popularized by Stranger Cole, Prince Buster, Clement “Coxsone” Dodd, Duke Reid, and the band the ‘Skalites’ created by Tommy McCook. An example of Jamaican Ska is the song “Lucky Seven’ by Don Drummond and Tommy McCook band. One of the influences of West African music elements is vocality. This song is mostly instrumental but there are a couple voice effects that the singer makes. Another example is ostinato, when the lead singer repeats vocal effects over and over again. The final example we will include is syncopation. Occasionally the brass instrument being played will play something that is off beat and very noticeably interrupts the flow of the song.

Genre: Cumbia

Time and Place: Colombia's Caribbean coast

Artist and song: "Fuego de Cumbia (Cumbia Fire)", Los Gaiteros de San Jacinto

West African elements: Virtuoso, Syncopation, and Rhythm

Research: History of the genre, story, and interesting things to include.  Description of song and elements, instruments (connect to West Africa if possible

Cumbia music started in the 1800s as a courtship dance created by enslaved Africans who were brought from West African countries like Ghana and Congo to the coasts of Caribbean countries and Colombia. Cumbia spread from Columbia and the coast of the Caribbean to most of Latin America. Cumbia has many different styles, the style changes depending on its geographic location like Argentina, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Brazil, Ecuador, Cuba, and Mexico.  

Cumbia is a symbol of identity that was taken away from enslaved Africians, and shows respect for the roots of the people from “Abya Yala” which in the Kuna language means “flowering land” This is how indigenous people of Latin America described North and South Africa. 

Cumbia music was mostly influenced by three cultures: African, Spanish, and Los Indigenas (First Nations Peoples) they were all there before the Spanish took over the area and forced Africans from diverse nations, states, and cultures into slavery. Although they were stripped of their identity and roots they still remembered the heavy use of drums and rhythm from where they came from. That sense of rhythm and the heavy use of drums became staples of Cumbia music to this day, and can be heard in the song “Fuego de Cumbia”. Altho there is a difference in the rhythm between old and new Cumbia music. Old cumbia music uses a rhythm pattern called “clave” (triple or double-pulsed). 

Nowadays cumbia music uses offbeat rhythms and improvisation. In the song which is considered modern cumbia music, there is a use of an offbeat rhythm with the drums and maracas, although the flute contains the same rhythm as the singer.  Even though the rhythm has changed in Cumbia music the staples of using drums and percussion instruments are still there, for example in the song there is a dominant sound of drums and maracas. 

In the 1940s Lucho Bermuedz who was a composer combined the traditional rhythms in Cumbia music with the format of a large band, and they toured and played in front of rich, white audiences. That's how cumbia music popularized across Colombia and Latin America. Because cumbia music was performed in structures of big groups it became popular and was the national music of Colombia. What Lucho Bermudez did with cumbia music inspired other artists to mix music from different cultures of Colombia, and it showed as a form of resilience towards violence, conquest, and oppression that took a part in the colonization of Colombia by Spain. In the 90s international artists started mixing their modern style of music with cumbia, and that's how cumbia became an intentional music genre.

Genre: Gullah

Origin: Lower Atlantic Coast - 18th Century 

Song: “Stand by Me”, Ranky Tanky

West African elements: Ostinato, Virtuoso, Call and Response

Gullah is a genre of music that is a combination of rhythms, spirituals, and blues. Gullah music was created around the 18th Century, from the enslaved ancestors of the Gullah Geechee people who worked on rice plantations along the lower Atlantic coast.Their descendants settled in the lowlands of the Carolinas, Florida, and Georgia. They were mostly isolated from all inland society, resulting in the development of their own Creole language, which maintained Sierra Leonean Krio elements and words. The isolation of the geographical location helped them preserve their culture. Gullah music created the “hambone”, a style of percussion using your own body to make rhythmic beats. It was created because drums had been banned on plantations. Ranky Tanky is a revival Gullah music group from South Carolina. Their music features elements of Gullah, along with jazz and gospel. Their song Stand by Me includes instruments like the trumpet, bass, drums, and other forms of percussion. Some examples of West African elements in their music are ostinato and call-and-response, as they repeat the phrase “Stand by me” to the main virtuoso’s lyrics. Another famous example of a gullah musician was Gullah Jack. Gullah Jack was a famous singer and songwriter. He was known for his “soulful voice” and “powerful performances.” His music followed Gullah tradition by mixing African rhythms with gospel and the blues.Gullah music inspired many genres, such as spiritual, gospel, ragtime, rhythm, blues, soul, hip hop, and jazz. In fact, many jazz musicians such as Duke Ellington, and Dizzy Gillespie had elements of Gullah in their music. Gullah music also influenced George Gerswhin’s Porgy and Bess.

Genre: Capoeira Music

Origin: Late 18th Century, Brazil

Live Capoeira Example

West African Elements: Rhythm, Call and Response

Capoeira is not completely a dance, but is a sport and was a means of self-defense. Historically, it would be played with blades strapped to the ankles. It was brought to Brazil with the slave trade and practiced by enslaved people to be used as a martial art, who disguised it as a dance. It was developed as an escape and resist for capture. There are complicated methods, such as people performing somersaults in the air. The sport is usually accompanied by music, produced with an instrument called the berimbau, a single-string percussion instrument coming from its origins in Africa. The music generally is played in accompaniment to the sport, with the beat of the berimbau determining the speed and style of the match. Other instruments can be included as well. There can be tambourines, a drum, or a bell played during the song. People sing call-and-response songs in Portuguese along with the instruments. In the video, there are three people playing the berimbau, the long instrument with a gourd at the end. There are elements of rhythm, and elements of ostinato as well, with certain phrases being repeated. One person singing stands out from the chorus of voices (a virtuoso), and there may be a call and response.

Funk Carioca (Brazilian Funk)

Began in the 1960s, Brazil. 

“Baile de Favela” Mc Joao and Dj R7

West African elements: Vocality, Ostinato, Rhythm.

Funk Carioca is a music genre that originated in Rio De Janeiro favelas in the 1970s. Funk's history started in the 1960s, influenced by Black Musicians and North American sounds. Funk Carioca is distinct from funk music, and was known for heavy drum patterns with heavy lyrics. DJs in Rio's Favelas began to play funk leading to it becoming a musical escape for the residents of the city. Funk Carioca gained popularity and formed very large funk parties all around Brazil. Funk Carioca made history, and was the genre used by the first black Latin-American music artist to reach over one million plays online. An example of the unique genre of Funk Carioca that includes heavy drum patterns and heavy portuguese lyrics is Baile de Favela by Mc Joao and Dj R7. This song includes many aspects of West African elements, including vocality, ostinato, rhythm. One example of rhythm in the song is the constant beat from drums, and the bass guitar. An example of ostinato is when the words “baile de favela” are repeated. This translates to Favela dance. The repeated beat of the drums throughout the song creates a strong rhythm. This song talks about the Brazilian favelas. A favela is the working class neighborhood, which translates to slum. Favelas were called “bairros africanos.”This is because the neighborhoods were home to many formerly enslaved Africans. Baile de Favela is a great example of Funk Carioca which is a very unique and important genre. 

Genre: Harlem Renaissance: Jazz

Origin: Harlem in the 1920’s

Song: "Ain't Misbehavin" by Fats Waller

West African elements: Syncopation, Virtuoso

“Ain’t Misbehavin’” by Fats Waller is an example of music from the Harlem renaissance. Harlem renaissance Jazz was invented during the 1920’s and 1930’s. It is known as a form of music that is ever changing and evolving. Beginning in Harlem, New York and then spread to Chicago, Jazz music grew and gained popularity and respect as an art form. The history of this jazz comes from West African and European influences, both instrumental and rhythmical. Specifically, instrumental influences from West Africa include the banjo, guitar, and percussion, whereas instrumental influences from Europe contain the trumpet, trombone, saxophone, string bass, and piano. A strong influence of Jazz music came from the experience of slavery in America, and the experience of southern plantation culture. “Black music provided the pulse of the Harlem renaissance and of the Jazz Age more generally” (Britannica). Some of the top artists of the Harlem renaissance were Louis Armstrong, Cab Calloway, Duke Ellington, and Chick Webb. “Ain’t Misbehavin’” by Fats Waller is a great example of jazz from the Harlem renaissance as it contains many key attributes to jazz music in general, and references to West African music. Waller’s piano skills stand out as an example of stride piano; a subgenre of Jazz, where the left hand plays the main rhythm that includes swing and complexity, whereas the right hand improvises. The song presents a simple combination of piano and Waller’s voice, but as they are so different, it allows Waller's voice to act as a virtuoso. Jazz music itself tends to have swung rhythms, and specifically in “Ain’t Misbehavin’”, there is a prominent syncopated rhythm played on the piano. Whereas Waller’s voice is juxtaposed, as he sings a smooth rhythm that allows the piano to fade into the background. Today, Jazz music remains a well known and respected genre of music that still highlights and references its history and origin.

Genre: Cuban Rumba

Time and Place: Cuba - Late 19th century

Artist and song: "Vente Solito” Los Muñequitos de Matanzas

West African elements: Ostinato, Rhythm, Function

Research: History of the genre, story, and interesting things to include.  Description of song and elements, instruments (connect to West Africa if possible

One of the most inclusive genres of music in terms of the different instruments that are used in it is Cuban Rumba. Originating in Cuba in the late 19th century, it swept the musical culture right off its feet in Cuba, especially during a time of political turmoil. Cuban Rumba is generally a mixture of genres, including Spanish Flamenco which really influenced the rhythm in Cuban Rumba. When listening to “Vente Solito” you can hear plenty of call and response in the music with a lower voice calling and a higher voice responding. That is a theme that is replicated throughout the whole style. The underlying rhythm is usually very catchy and easy to pick up. It consists of claves and drums, slightly hitting against each other so that the listener is able to pick up on the subtle tones. We encounter ostinato a lot in the song and genre, especially during the call and response phrases. Cuban Rumba is predominantly performed in front of friends, family or relatives. During gatherings such as cookouts, or cocktail parties, Cuban Rumba is usually present, especially if the event takes place in Cuba. One of the pioneers of Cuban Rumba was Carlos “Patato” Valdes, who was especially known for his fancy call and response creativity within his pieces. Other artists who valiantly contributed to the uprising of Cuban Rumba were Miguel Diaz and Mongo Santamaria. Overall, the origins of Cuban Rumba were pretty confined, besides for the influence from Spain. The music itself is quite interactive and allows people to sing along and clap to each song because of the underlying rhythms and the featured call and responses throughout each song.

Genre: Batucada

Origin: Bahia, Brazil, 1980’s

Song: “Batucada,” Tambores e Cores

West African elements: ostinato, rhythm, call and response

Batucada is a new substyle of samba that appeared in Brazil in the 1980’s. While most samba originated from Rio de Janeiro, the samba batucada was developed in Bahia, Brazil. The word ”batucada” comes from the word “batuque” in Brazil. Batuque is a religion originated in Brazil that had roots in the African religion from Yorubas. This dance was part of a religious ritual for the Yoruban gods: “The  (rhythm) of the  (drums) in the batucada, the harmony of the (singing) and the movement of the  (dances) are closely linked to the Afro-Brazilian  (religions).” The lyrics of the batucada strongly reflect the African Diaspora in Brazil. The Batucada’s most prominent characteristics are its repetitive style, also called ostinato, and its fast pace. The Batucada music strongly reflects African culture, where there were always drums in every occasion, including festivals, celebrations, and fighting games. Common instrumentation includes Repinique, Surdo, Tamborim, Bells, Chocalho, Caixa de guerra, Cuica, Timbal, Pandeiro, Reco-Reco (Guiro), and Apito. The Surdo and the Apito are the most important instruments in the batucada. The Surdo is a large bass drum that has a rich tone and is used in many types of Brazilian music, including the samba. The Surdo plays the baseline for the music and provides a sense of rhythm. The Apito de samba, also known as the “samba whistle,” is also significant because the band leader uses this drum to cue the band for transitions. It creates a call and response between the different types of drums.

Genre: Reggae Origins

Origin: Jamaica, particularly Kingston, 1960s-1970s

“Do the Reggay” by Toots and the Maytals

Elements of African Music: Vocality, Virtuoso, Rhythm

In the early 1960s in Kingston, Jamaica a band called the Maytals made a song called “Do the Reggay”, which was the first song that named the new genre that evolved from Ska and Rocksteady. In the song you can hear the main artist is using a lot of vocal effects between the chorus and there is a strong drum rhythm in the background. The name was slightly changed from reggay to reggae and is now one of the main music genres of Jamaica. Reggae takes a lot of inspiration from blues, jazz, and mento (a genre of celebratory dance music with a largely rural audience). Reggae was also largely influenced by Rastafarianism, a sect of Protestant Christianity that emerged in Jamaica in the 1930s. Rastafarianism focuses on empowering the African diaspora in the west. During Rastafarian gatherings reggae music is usually played.

References:

Do The Reggay. (2018, September 4). Www.youtube.com. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9eM3UlP4VNw

Wikipedia Contributors. (2019, October 12). Reggae. Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reggae

Wikipedia Contributors. (2019b, December 2). Rastafari. Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rastafari

Genre: Tango

Origin: Buenos Aires, Argentina and Montevideo, Uruguay 

Song: “Oblivion” by Astor Piazzolla

West African elements: syncopation and rhythm

Tango is a popular dance and distinctive style of music, that is characterized by its unique rhythm, sensuality and passion. It is played at four beats per measure with a strong melody and a leading bandoneon, a small instrument similar to an accordion. Instruments played in the background are the violin, guitar, piano, drums, double bass, flute, and clarinet. Tango’s use of syncopated rhythms gives it complexity and energy. The Spanish poetic lyrics share themes of love, loss and longing. The most authentic form of tango is Argentine tango, and it originated in late 19th century Buenos Aires, Argentina, and Montevideo, Uruguay.. At the time, Buenos Aires was a cultural melting pot because of the many immigrants coming from Europe, Africa, and distinct areas of South America. Tango was influenced by this mixture of cultures, as well as the Mapuche, the indigenous people of Argentina. It then spread from South America to Europe, and by the end of 1913, it had made its way to New York City and Finland, further developing several new variations of tango. One new form of tango was called the “North American Tango”, a fast style that featured sharper movements, like head snaps and quick foot movements. The most brilliant star of tango’s prime in the 1920’s and 30’s was bandoneon player Anibal Troilo. Some of the other more famous tango musicians were Astor Piazzolla and Carlos Gardel, two pioneers who popularized the music and fused it with different genres. Piazzolla’s “Oblivion” demonstrates the West African elements of syncopation, rhythm, and the importance of the lead bandoneon. The syncopation is seen while the bandoneon plays over the rhythm, which leads and amplifies the melody. Portions of the song include fast and passionate sounds, while other parts sound slower and more emotional. Elements of tango have grown more prevalent in modern activities because of its cultural association with love and embrace. Some examples include figure skating and synchronized swimming.

Genre: Motown Music 

Origin: Detroit, Michigan, 1960s

Song: “Nowhere to Run,” Martha and the Vandellas

West African Elements: Rhythm and Virtuoso

Motown was a record company that started in Detroit, Michigan in 1959. There were other independent black-run record companies that did well with rhythm and blues music at the time, and Berry Gordy Jr. started one as well. During the 1960s and 1970s, the Motown company released numerous chart topping records. They were able to do this through careful selection of artists, and carefully picked which artists to have deals with. This created the Motown genre of music, which was similar to rhythm and blues, or soul music. Artists and groups they worked with included Martha and the Vandellas, The Supremes, The Marvelettes, and Marvin Gaye. Motown music is known for a lot of rhythm, an upbeat tempo, and is usually written for piano. It contains pop elements, and also usually contains messages about love. 

An example of the Motown Music Genre would be the song “Nowhere to Run” by Martha and the Vandellas (a soul and pop vocal group). The song was released in 1965. The song expresses a message about love, contains an upbeat tempo, and has a piano riff towards the end.  There’s a tambourine in the background that keeps a steady beat throughout the song, a good example of rhythm. The lead singer, Martha Reeves, sings some parts of the song by herself, or while the others do background vocals, which aren’t lyrics. This is an example of a virtuoso, where one lead singer stands out.

Genre: Rara

Origin: 1996 in Brooklyn, New York 

Song: Rara - Haiti, Jeff Pierre 

West African elements: Syncopation, Rhythm, Function

Rara music first originated in Haiti, as slaves used it as a call against French dictatorship, as well as a way to celebrate the end of a hard day’s work and show that they were still spiritually thriving. Many elements of Rara music from that time can still be heard today, including the stomping and marching of performers, mimicking the way slaves would communicate and plan rebellions. This was often only possible during Easter, when slaves from different plantations were allowed to mix with each other. For this reason, Rara is often performed on Easter weekend. The instruments in Rara music include drums, shakers, and bells, which can be heard in syncopation in this chosen song. However, the most important elements of the music come from cylindrical bamboo trumpets (vaksin) and metal trumpets (kone or klewon). Since Rara is street music and often performed in a procession like slaves did to celebrate once they gained freedom in Haiti, it includes elements of carnival and vodou. Rara music celebrates African history and the African population of Haiti, and is always performed in Haitian Creole. Rara music also carries political messages and can deal with heavy issues such as oppression and poverty. In Haiti it is used to commemorate the revolt that eventually led to their freedom. As time went on, immigrants and descendants of Haitian people brought Rara to the eastern coast of America, and it was formally recognized in Brooklyn, New York, in 1996.‌

Genre: Candomble

Origin: Brazil, Nineteenth Century

Song: “Saudação a Ogum,” Pai Cido de Oxum 

West African elements: virtuoso, call and response, ostinato, rhythm, function. 

As a result of millions of Africans being forced across the Atlantic Ocean, Candomble was developed in Brazil as an oral polytheistic religion. Brazil was the country that had the most slaves, which suggests why Candomble is a combination of numerous West African ethnic groups, including Yoruba, Bantu, and Fon. Practicing Candomble was once illegal because the slaves were supposed to be Catholics, which explains why Candomble has Catholic influences; however, keeping their African traditional religious identities showcased resistance and brought hope during the demanding period of the transatlantic slave trade. Candomble music included a lead singer who sang about correcting the flaws in society, and connected it to the harsh system of slavery. Candomble ceremonies became legal starting in the 1970s, and took place in decorated temples. Rituals included animal sacrifices, dancing, singing and music. The lead singer sings and others respond with repeating phrases. There are multiple rhythms, which include clapping and drumming; drums are usually played with thin sticks. Candomble music engages everyone through the rhythm of the drums or through the hymns sung by the lead singers. Originally, Candomble amplified resistance and hope on the plantations, and developed to be a well known Afro-Brazilian religion. 

Genre: Hip Hop 80-90s

Origin: Late 90s-atlanta

Song: “Ms. Jackson”, Outkast

West african elements:Ostinato and Virtuoso

The song “Ms. Jackson” was a very popular song during the late 90s and a big part of the Atlanta, Georgia hip hop industry. Some typical West African musical elements that are present specifically in Ms. Jackson are Ostinato and Virtuoso. You can hear Ostinato when the song repeats “I'm sorry Ms. Jackson ooo I am for real”. Virtuoso is also present in the song because Outkast the main singer is the voice you hear most.  Atlanta's hip hop played a big role in the 1980s and early 1990s with stars like Kilo Ali, MC Shy-D, Raheem the Dream, and DJ Smurf. By the mid-1990s LaFace Records and Outkast, who wrote “Ms. Jackson”, helped create the Dirty South style of hip-hop. Atlanta gained a reputation for soul-minded hip-hop and started to become a huge center of hip-hop innovation in the South. Atlanta's pop development had a blend of hard-core sounds from the West, bass beats from Florida, and styles and pictures from the North. Atlanta hip-hop influenced other mainstream forms of media, for example television shows. A big part of hip hop also came from the New York metropolitan area during the middle of the 1980s and the early to mid 1990s. Having talented artists, diverse sampling, and experimental music are important factors of having good hip hop. 

Genre: Samba Music

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (1917) 

Song: O Samba Da Minha Terra - Novos Baianos

West African Elements: ostinato, virtuoso 

“O Samba Da Minha Terra” by Novos Baianos is an example of Samba music. The name Samba originated from the word Semba in the Kimbundu language of Angola, meaning a connection between the dancer and the musician. It is almost a call and response between those two arts, making it a strong connection between dance and music. Although rooted in Africa, Samba became popular in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Samba “schools” were developed, a safe place for people to experiment and twist samba music their own way. At these schools, carnival Samba was born and Samba quickly became a staple in carnivals and festivals in Brazil. One of the first songs to popularize Samba was “Pelo Telefone” by Mauro Almeida and Donga (1917). Now, Samba has spread all over the world, especially in the Americas. Samba became popular in America due to the Brazilian singer Carmen Miranda. Although Samba music has transformed and spread over the world, its roots are still prevalent. The song “Day Dreams of Rio” is an example of this, using techniques like ostinato, virtuoso, and many more. These techniques are rooted in African music. Ostinato is a small phrase or instrumental sound repeated many times throughout the song. Virtuoso is having one main voice or instrument leading the song. Both of these things are present in most Samba music, especially “O Samba Da Minha Terra” by Novos Baianos. Throughout the song, a pattern of guitar was repeated over and over again in the background, this is ostinato. The song was led by one singer singing over all other noises, making him the virtuoso. Although Samba music has had its ups and downs, it remains one of Brazil's most popular genres of music.

Genre: Chicago Blues

Time and Place: 1942 in Chicago

Elements of African Music: Call and Response, Virtuoso, Vocality.

Song and Artist: “Got my Mojo working” by Muddy Waters and James Cotton:

Chicago Blues originated sometime around 1942. Muddy Waters, who had just migrated to Chicago from Mississippi, partnered up with Big Bill Broonzy and created the new genre of blues, and called it the Chicago Blues. At the time, Big Bill Broonzy was also associated with Tampa Red, and together they helped new people in the music industry find gigs to play at. This helped Muddy Waters to spread this new music genre. Chicago Blues is originally inspired from the Delta Blues from Mississippi, which Muddy Waters brought to Chicago. However, Chicago Blues is played with more of an urban style; it primarily uses instruments such as the electric guitar, bass, drums, harmonica, accordion, and more, as well as including electric effects such as distortion. In Chicago Blues, while everyone is also incorporating their instruments in the song, there are some elements of virtuoso, whether that’s a lead singer or an instrument solo like the harmonica. There are also some elements of vocality, whether that’s from the guttural sounds from the harmonica or from the lead singer doing lip trills throughout parts in the song, as well as some elements of call and response, with the lead singer singing the phrase, “Got my Mojo”, and the backup singers repeating it. Though it was originally played in black clubs in black neighborhoods, Chicago Blues became international in the 1950s-1960s. With its newfound popularity, Chicago Blues inspired new types of genres such as hard rock and British blues. As Chicago Blues spread, musicians, such as Little Walter, Willie Dixon, Howln’ Wolf, and others, started to become more prominent. Even though the popularity of Chicago Blues has decreased in recent years, it is still celebrated by the Chicago Blues Festival every year, on the anniversary of Muddy Waters’s death.

Genre: Jazz Bebop

Origin: New York City, 1940s

Songs: “Ornithology,” Charlie Parker

West African Elements: Virtuoso, ostinato

There are many kinds of Jazz with various musical styles and rhythmic structures. However, a more well-known style of Jazz is called Bebop, known for its singers that vocalize syllables and sounds during performances. It was first developed in the early 1940’s by the Earl Hines Orchestra at Milton’s Playhouse in Harlem, New York. The most notable musicians of Jazz Bebop have been Alto saxophonist Charlie “Bird” Parker, his partner and trumpet player John Birks “Dizzy” Gillespie, and Monk Thelonious, the house pianist at Minton’s Uptown Playhouse who first played it. It is different from other jazz styles because of its unique characteristics and West African elements, such as Virtuoso. Virtuoso influenced Bebop with a large influence on the soloist, on top of its other characteristics: the fast tempos, small bands, longer rhythm sections, experimentation, improvisation, and contrafacts. Typically, Swing jazz musicians were limited in speed in order to allow dancing. Since bebop wasn’t meant for dancing but rather for listening, it was played at a faster pace. How bebop was developed, influenced the musicians and their grouping. Meaning that bebop bands have stayed in their traditional style of organization and kinds of instruments. These traditional styles of bands consist of one to three trumpets or saxophones, a pianist, double bass and drum. Jazz bebop has a larger focus on the musicians instead of the audience. Therefore, musicians focus a great deal on the rhythm, increasing the rhythm section for support riffs and embellishments. With larger rhythm sections, musicians have experimented on complex harmonies and unpredictable rhythms that allow bebop players to be more creative with their music. They also allow musicians to improvise melodies called a “head”, which accompany rhythm sections, then soloists improvise a solo segment, and finally the original head closes the tune. Bebop players have improvised using preexisting chord progressions or harmonic structures, and also have played new melodies with them. Some soloists would repeat these chords, relating to the West African element of Ostinato. These preexisting chord progressions are called contrafacts that allow musicians to use popular chords and harmonic structures without asking permission from the original publisher. For instance, Charlie Parker’s “Ornithology” used the tune “How High the Moon.”

Genre: Calypso

Origin: Trinidad, 19th Century

Song: “Rum and Coca Cola," Lord Invader (note that this song is copyrighted in the US under a different artist)

West African elements: virtuoso, ostinato, syncopation

Groups of slaves on the island Trinidad, tired of being muted by their owner’s power, began singing throughout the streets of the island. The songs were more than their request for freedom- they went against political opponents and attacked unfair policies around the island. Called Calypso, the genre exploded during the 1950s. The singers of traditional Calypso music were also known as poets for their clever lyrics and ability to bend the rules so their voices were heard. The songs were usually sung in combinations of Spanish, Creole, and other languages from Western Africa. The songs tend to have a few solo verses sung by the poet, like “young girls say they treat them nice / make Trinidad like paradise,” and there are a few phrases that are repeated throughout the song, for example, “drinking rum and coca cola… working for the yankee dollar.” A base rhythm is usually kept with a steelpan, which can be heard with a clangy sound. But the songs commonly use syncopation through other instruments, like maracas. Along with steelpan and maracas, they played guitar and cuatro (stringed instrument similar to guitar) and tamboo-bamboo (bamboo sticks hit on the floor). Today, the Calypso genre has expanded, becoming much more widespread around the United States.

Genre: Afro-Colombian Music

Origin: 17th century Colombia

Song: “En la Nalga Pegale,” Cumbia Siglo XX (20th Century)

West African Elements: ostinato, call and response, rhythm, and virtuoso

Afro-Colombians are people of African descent who live in Colombia. Black people were first forced into Colombia during the trans-atlantic slave trade in the 17th century. Since Black people landed on the coast, many African musical traditions were brought there. One village, Palenque de San Basilio, is highly influenced by African music because the community was founded by escaped slaves in the 1600’s. Despite this, African music didn’t spread much to the rest of Colombia until the 1970’s. In 1972, some sailors brought records from Nigeria to Colombia, and people really liked them. Record labels then sent producers to Africa to find out more about African music, and that was the start of Afro-Colombian music. One of the first bands that popularized Afro-Colombian music was Nigeria’s Oriental Brothers International Band. Afro-Colombian music is centered around drums and percussion, although there are many types of Afro-Colombian music, like rap palenquero, reggae, and electronic music. The song above, “En la Nalga Pegale,” consists of some drums and other instruments (that we do not recognize) in the background, with a soloist singer and a chorus. There is a lot of ostinato of the word “pegale” throughout the song. In addition, there is call and response between the soloist and the chorus in the background. Aside from the beginning, there is rhythm throughout in the form of percussion, and it is a major aspect of the song. There is also a virtuoso -the person starting the call and response.

Genre: Latin Jazz

Origin: Cuba and New York, Mid-1900s 

Song: Tito Puente- “Oye Como Va”

West African Elements in Song: Ostinato, Rhythm, Syncopation, Virtuoso

In the early 20th century, people were traveling between Cuba and New York, and their music cultures became more and more intertwined. As more Latinos moved, mostly from Puerto Rico, to New York and Philadelphia (and later Detroit and Baltimore) they created a culture of music in the US called Latin Jazz, or Afro-Cuban Jazz. Its major characteristics are a dance tempo (usually around 120 bpm), and a major stress accompanied by bass drum on beats two and four. Typical instruments for Latin Jazz include: drum sets, bongo, shakers, maracas, bass guitar, trombone, trumpet, piano, double bass, voice, guiro, flute, and saxophone. Latin Jazz, however, still exists and is thriving through artists like Alfredo Rodriguez, Juan Pastor Chinchano, and more. In the chosen song “Oye Como Va” by Tito Puente, many West African musical elements can be found. For example, rhythm is a major part of this song; drums, a güiro, and other percussion instruments are used extensively to maintain rhythm. Furthermore, the instruments are used to create different rhythms at once-a polyrhythm. Also, Ostinato can be found in the repetition of the phrase “Oye Como Va”. The use of syncopation can be identified by the “swung note” before beats two and four. Finally, vocality is significant in this song as the lead singer, Tito Puente, is the soloist throughout the song. 

Genre: Son Cubano 

Origin: Cuba, 19th century

Song: “Bruca Maniguá,” Ibrahim Ferrer (2015)

West African elements: call and response, rhythm, virtuoso

Son Cubano, more popularly known as Son, originated in eastern Cuba in the late 19th century. It has European and African roots, specifically in the instruments used, such as bongos, congas, timables and claves. Son music spread to Latin American and Hispanic Caribbean nations, but truly evolved in Havana. Son Cubano roughly translates to “the Cuban sound.” Son music originally developed from folkloric music, with roots of African and Spanish music as well. Characters of Son include bell patterns and African rhythms. Modern day Son music is best known for their percussion but also includes piano, guitar, trumpet, maracas and more. Son music is also the base for most forms of salsa and Latin jazz. “Bruca Maniguá” by Ibrahim Ferrer is a very popular song from this genre, one of the songs that helped popularize the genre. It has the West African elements of call and response (later on in the song when the background vocals repeat what Ibrahim sings), rhythm (when the background instruments form the pulse), and virtuoso of the singer. Son music ensembles are still active today and located in places such as New York, Florida, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic and more.    

Early Hip Hop

New York City, late 1970s and 1980s

“Rapper’s Delight” by The Sugarhill Gang 

West African Elements: Virtuoso, Rhythm

Rap originated in the Bronx borough in the early 1970s.  It was initially created by African Americans as a way to combat drug use and violence. It was also a collaboration among Black, Latino, and Caribbean youth as a way to combine all of their cultures. It was first performed at house parties, community centers, parks, block parties, and clubs. At the start DJs were the main attraction.  MCs would introduce the DJs and keep the crowd excited. Over time it became more common for MCs to rhyme and talk with the music. DJ’s began testing the limits of percussion and experimented with different techniques. Rapping eventually developed into a vocal style and an art form and those MCs became known as rappers. Now, DJs use and manipulate tracks to play as a backdrop for rap. The first time hip hop music was recorded officially was in 1979, which was so late due to general lack of acceptance. One of the first rap sounds to ever be recorded was “Rapper’s Delight” by The Sugarhill Gang. The song switches perspectives as two early rappers sing about their experiences being rappers.This song uses lots of rhythm and virtuoso just like many other rap songs today. Rap and Hip hop were initially dismissed and thought of as a fad. Rap existed long before being discovered by producers. After seeing the potential, record and film producers began to capitalize on the music. Major record companies started to gain interest. Hip Hop quickly went from very humble to a mainstream billion dollar industry. 

Genre: Forró

Origin: Northeastern Brazil, 19th century

Song: "Eu Só Quero Um Xodó," Dominguinhos 

West African elements: polyrhythm, syncopation, and ostinato

Forró most likely originated in the farms and countryside of Northeastern Brazil, with farmers singing together while harvesting crops such as coffee, sugar, or corn. A distinct song corresponded to a certain crop, and each step of the harvest. Later, it spread to social gatherings and parties, with improvisation and informal competition sometimes taking place. The music style features three different rhythms — xote, baião, and arrasta pé — with each corresponding to a certain dance. The instruments usually include the guitar, zabumba (Afro-Brazilian bass drum), and metal triangle, although after French immigration, the accordion was added in the place of the guitar. The triangle provides the basic rhythm, stressing the third note, while the zabumba adds syncopation, producing a polyrhythm that is prevalent throughout the entire song. The accordion, providing the colorful backdrop of the song, is tuned in a different style, producing a synchronous sound. The singer repeats multiple phrases, exemplifying ostinato, sometimes with a different pitch each time. Traditionally, the lyrics were originally about life in the countryside, such as stories about droughts and the hope to return when the rain comes, or migration to find work. More recently, other forms of forró have appeared, such as forró universitario, which concerns stories of the urbanized middle class and college students and incorporates components of pop and rock. This coincides with the spread of forró music throughout Brazil, not just Northeastern Brazil. Modern forró (or electronic forró) is a relatively new addition to the genre, bringing in instruments such as electric guitar or keyboard and more universal themes. 

Genre: Chicago Blues

Time: 1920s

Place: Chicago, Illinois

Artist: Muddy Waters

Song: Hoochie Coochie Man

West African elements: Virtuoso, Rhythm, Call and response




Chicago blues was a popular style of blues that emerged in the late 1920s but became popular in the 1950s. This form of blues was based on earlier forms of blues like delta blues, an early form of blues originating in the Mississippi delta, but performed in a more urban style. Similar to delta blues, Chicago blues would mainly use guitar and harmonica. However, this new style implemented components like amplification and rhythm sections, which means the part of blues that supplies the rhythm, usually produced by bass or drums. This genre of music was able to find its way to Chicago, a whole 700 miles away from Mississippi, where delta blues originated, due to the great migration. This was the movement of Black Americans away from the South and to other parts of the US. During this period, not only was musical performance and recordings becoming more popular nationwide, but also a great increase in the black community throughout the country. However, soon after this change, the industry fell into a great slump known as the Great Depression. When the 1950s rolled around, Chicago blues skyrocketed.  The music was played predominantly in bars and clubs, and as time went on, new genres began to emerge from Chicago blues, like Rock. The people who enjoyed listening to rock wanted to seek out the roots of the music they were listening to, and as a result, blues gained more and more popularity. The song we chose to represent this genre is by one of the most important figures in post-World War II blues Muddy Waters. So influential that he was named the “father of modern Chicago blues’, and he wasn’t even born in Chicago, he was born in Mississippi. He played guitar and harmonica from a very young age, two of the most important instruments in blues music. He was able to train his vocals while attending church. An example of one of the ways he was influential is the band Rolling Stones. The Rolling Stones were one of the most popular bands of all time, and they were named after Muddy Waters' song “Rollin Stone”. The song I chose is called “Hoochie Coochie Man.” The song includes a fairly light rhythm from drums and many electric guitars. There is a great amount of virtuoso, Muddy Waters stands out from all the other sounds present. In addition, there is some call and response between Muddy Waters and the guitars. About halfway through the song, the piano takes an abrupt solo which is of a fairly different sound compared to the rest of the song, along with a guitar solo as well. Chicago Blues, and Muddy Waters (this song of his in particular) were some of the greatest influences to music in the history of modern day music. Chicago itself is considered the living embodiment of blues as it is still the center of the genre in America with an annual festival for it which has been running  since 1984.

Ska

Jamaica, Late 1950s

Desmond Dekker - Israelites

Ska is Jamaica’s first indigenous urban pop style. It’s a genre of music that combines elements of Caribbean mento and calypso with American jazz and rhythm blue. The genre originated in Jamaica in the late 1950s, becoming a precursor to rocksteady and reggae. It's often characterized by a walking bass line with rhythms accented on the off-beat. Its roots started after World War II when Jamaicans purchased radios in increasing numbers. This quickly led to Jamaicans hearing the rhythm and blues music from New Orleans, often music with a now considered "ska and reggae feel". Ska had many waves during its acclaim. The first began in its origin - Jamaica. This was during the early 1960s, occurring simultaneously with the country’s declaration of independence from Britain. The second began in the UK and the US. In the UK, its surge began in the late 1970s and 80s, with lyrics reflecting values surrounding battling racism, promoting integration, and pushing back against Britain's conservative government. In the US, by the 1980s, American groups caught on to Ska’s second wave. These groups are notably “The Toasters”, and “Bim Skala Bim”. Ska would also begin to incorporate social messaging into the genre. The third and last wave was largely in the US during the 1990s. It got mixed in with pop punk, with popular acts including “Sublime”, “Fishbone”, “Operation Ivy”, etc. The song we chose to represent this genre is “The Israelites”, by Desmond Dekker. We think Desmond is a perfect representation of Ska because he was named “The King of Ska”, and had a huge influence on how Ska developed and grew in popularity. Desmond Dekker was the first Jamaican artist to have hit a record in the US with Jamaican-style music. The song we chose by him, “The Israelites”, a well-known Ska classic, was released in 1968 and was able to top the UK singles chart and top ten of the US Billboard Hot 100. It holds many traditional West African elements in it. The song displays multiple different beats and rhythms through different instruments, as well as repeating key phrases (Ostinato) that stick with you throughout the song.  Overall, Ska held a lot of the power and direction for how music developed during the 1900s.

Works Cited:

A Guide to Ska Music: History and Sounds of Ska Music. (2007, June 7). MasterClass. https://www.masterclass.com/articles/ska-music-guide 

Desmond Dekker. (2020, April 1). Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmond_Dekker

Hussey, D. (n.d.). Ska | music. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/art/ska 

Ska. (2023, September 12). Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ska#:~:text=Ska%20 

Genre: Salsa 

Salsa: 1940’s and 1970’s Cuba and New York City

Vivir Mi Vida by Marc Anthony

Rhythm, Vocality 

Salsa music is a very important part of Latin American music culture, consisting mostly of a percussion section and a smaller horn section. Salsa music makes use of claves, a musical instrument that consists of two sticks used for keeping a rhythm constant throughout the song. The main focus of salsa music is on the percussion section but there are many other instruments partially used, such as cowbells and vibraphones.  During the percussion section Salsa musicians use conga drums, timbales, bongos, maracas, marimbas and guiros. It has an anticipated music structure where the bass line plays before the downbeat. Salsa music was also combined with jazz when some bands played, such as Eddie Palmeirie’s band called La Perfecta. Salsa music started in New York city around the 1940s and 1950s. It had roots in West African and Cuban music tradition and was brought to New York City by Cuban immigrants and the term Salsa was created by Johnny Pacheco to make the music more recognisable. Salsa music is very interconnected with the salsa dance. Dancers would often influence the mood of the song and the musicians would adapt, improvising as they played. Vivir Mi Vida by Marc Anthony is a great example of Salsa music. It has a great percussion section and a recognizable rhythm.

Genre: Big band swing jazz 

Jazz (swing+big band): 1920’s New Orleans

“In the mood: by Glenn Miller

Ostinato, Rhythm, Virtuoso, Call and Response, and Vocality.

Jazz is a cornerstone of American music culture, a form of music that almost anyone can recognize. What many people don't know about Jazz, specifically Swing Jazz, is the effect the African Diaspora had on it. Jazz’s roots date back to New Orleans in the 1920’s. New Orleans was a major slave trading hub, and Louisiana as a state had many plantations. The culture of West African people is still very prominent in Louisiana. It especially was at the time due to them being just a few generations removed from the arrival of enslaved West Africans. You can see this culture in big band jazz. They usually have one virtuoso, a player who will stand up, solo, and improvise at times. Syncopation is also very well established in jazz and often is encouraged due to its unusual rhythm, a rhythm which is based in West African culture. More instruments originating in West Africa are used in combination with European brass instruments. These brass instruments make ostinatos, repeating the same short melodies. Guitar, Banjo, and percussion instruments are used heavily in jazz and West African music. In the 30s and 40s big band swing jazz was beginning to be adopted more by white people, who began to enjoy and appreciate this new type of music. This is all demonstrated in Glenn Miller’s In the mood, where you can hear a lot of Ostinato from the trombones, vocality from the trumpets, rhythm and a lot of percussion, a little bit of improvisation during the trumpet solo, and some call and response between the melody and the background. This transformed into Swing Jazz, which was heavily influenced by Louis Armstrong.

Genre: Soul/R&B 70s

Origin: United States, 1940s to present day

Song: “What’s Going On,” Marvin Gaye - 1971

West African elements: rhythm, virtuoso, call and response, function

R&B music, which stands for “Rhythm and Blues,” started in the 1940s, and referred to the broad category of African American music. R&B contains elements of pop, gospel, blues and jazz. Rhythm was more important than the complexity of the instruments and harmony, and many teenage R&B singers used their mouths to make sounds instead of instruments. R&B was one of the first genres of music to use electric guitars. It also used big drum sets, and had a strong backbeat, which means that out of 4 beats, the 2nd and 4th beat are played the loudest. Soul started in the 1960s when record companies started recruiting black musicians. Soul was influenced by traditional blues and Black Church gospel music, with many Soul musicians starting by performing in gospel groups. Soul was popular in big cities, such as Memphis, Detroit, and New York City. Some elements of Soul music are call and response, virtuoso singers, rhythm, function, blues harmonies, and horn sections. The function of a lot of Soul music was commenting on social and political problems happening throughout the United States, such as civil rights movements. Marvin Gaye was an important Soul musician who worked to address social and political problems around the United States. “What’s Going On” by Marvin Gaye contains rhythm, virtuoso, call and response, and function. Marvin Gaye used this song to highlight problems throughout the nation, and help support the fight for Black civil rights. When Marvin Gaye uses virtuoso in “What’s Going On,” he stands out from the rest of the singers, sometimes singing the same thing as them, but other times he seems like he is improvising. Like much of Soul music, the rhythm of “What’s Going On” contains a heavy backbeat. Additionally, there is call and response when Marvin Gaye will call out and a group will respond, such as when he asks, “what’s going on?” and the chorus responds, “what’s going on.” Soul music has evolved into various genres of music, such as funk, disco, contemporary R&B, smooth jazz, disco, and hip-hop.

Zouk

1980’s-present day, The Caribbean, Brazil

Kassav and Mwen di ou awa

West African elements: Call and response, Rhythm, Virtuoso 

Zouk, is a popular dance music that originated in the Caribbean Islands.  The word Zouk was originally a creole word used to describe long all night parties. It became a genre in the 1980’s when Zouk was popularized by the band Kassav from Guadeloupe. The group used a mix of traditional instruments and new electronic instruments to create a completely new sound. Over the next few years Zouk would spread all over the Caribbean and South America. In a lot of these places Zouk dances and music replaced older forms of music like Lambada in brazil. Zouk songs tend to be relatively medium paced and use a lot of traditional Caribbean and West African elements like call and response, and loud rhythm sections.  In the song “Mwen di ou awa” by Kassav there is a lot of call and response between one main singer and a chorus that is in the background for the majority of the song and a rhythm section using drums and horns. The song and the entire genre is a great example of how West African music has influenced music in the modern day. 

Genre: Soca

Origin: Trinidad and Tobago, 1970s to present day

Song: “Indrani,” Lord Shorty - 1973

West African elements: rhythm, vocality, syncopation, ostinato

Soca music started in the 1970s, and was developed throughout the 1980s. Soca is based on Calypso music. Calypso music was developed from Kaiso and Canboulay music, which were brought to Trinidad from French Antilles by immigrants and enslaved Africans in the 18th and 19th centuries. Soca was originally spelled “Sokah,” which stood for “Soul of Calypso,” with the “kah” being the first letter in the Sanskrit alphabet, referencing the east Indian rhythms that influenced soca. Soca originated in Trinidad and Tobago, by mixing Calypso music with rhythms from Chutney, Reggae, Zouk, Latin, Cadence and traditional West African music. When Calypso music started dying down, Lord Shorty, a Trindidadian man who was known as the “father of Soca,” created soca. While Calypso music was for communicating, telling stories, and was not for dancing, Soca music is fast paced, exciting, and it is meant for dancing. Soca often contains loud, fast percussion, electric instruments, drums, guitars, and a lot of rhythm. The first popular Soca song was “Indrani,” by Lord Shorty. “Indrani” contains a strong rhythm, vocality, ostinato, and syncopation. This song is very up-tempo and contains so many different patterns throughout the song, which are always changing. Lord Shorty makes these rhythms using lots of different percussion instruments and other horns or brass instruments. He also uses polyrhythm, having multiple rhythms at the same time. These fast paced rhythms are sometimes interrupted by syncopation, when two short beats are played and then the rhythm stops for a few seconds. Lord Shorty uses both vocality and ostinato in “Indrani” when he sings “ahhhhh,” since it is a vocal effect he is using his voice to create special sounds, and it is a short musical phrase that gets repeated over and over throughout the song. Soca music used to be played in clubs and on radio stations; nowadays, Soca music is played at Carnival.

Afro Venezuelan

1800’s Venezuela

Song: Betsayda Machado y Parranda El Clavo: NPR Music Tiny Desk Concert

West African elements call and response, Vocality, Rhythm, Virtuoso.  

There are many big genres of Afro Venezuelan music, but one of the most well known genres consist of a type of music called Joropo music. Joropo is a polished, modernized version of pop sung by artists such as Adilia Castillo and Lorenzo Herrera.  This type of music is used to represent Christmas and other festive holidays and is usually sung with a group of people, often family, friends or bands. Afro Venezuelan Music is mostly associated with being connected to nations like Brazil and Cuba when addressing the southern hemisphere's contributions to African music since these are where popular music ultimately found its way into the mainstream. Outside of Venezuela, Afro-Venezuelan music and culture are rarely ever recognised or even presented. This type of music is usually sung with instruments such as the Colombian bagpipe and the harmonica drums. This music  originated in the 18th century. In the song Betsayda Machado y Parranda El Clavo, by the NPR Music Tiny Desk Concert, there appears to be west african elements that consist of call and response through the inital verse sung by Betsayada and the rest of the group following with another line, and throughout the entirety of the video, Betsayada seems do demonstrate a use off  vocality Rhythm and Virtuoso. 

Genre: Rock and Roll

Origin: Southern US, 1950s

Song: “Rocket 88” Jackie Brenston

West African Elements: Ostinato, Virtuoso

Many people in the present day often believe the origins of rock music come from modern, “white” rhythms and styles of music from famous artists such as Elvis Presley, The Beatles, and The Rolling Stones. In fact, the roots of rock music start in the 1950s with African American artists tweaking African rhythms and blues with one of the first songs being “Rocket 88” by Jackie Brenston in Memphis, Tennessee. Some African music elements that are prevalent in Brenston’s “Rocket 88” are ostinato as in the repeating piano and wind instrument notes. Not only is there a soloist that vocalizes virtuoso but throughout the song you can hear several piano and trumpet solos. Artists such as Muddy Waters, Bo Diddley, Chuck Berry, Little Richard, and Fats Domino were a few of the founders that shaped rhythm and blues into a new style. The new style, rock, incorporated a lot more aspects of wild behavior, romance and young love which first differentiated it from the blues. Some instruments that are commonly used in rock music are electric guitars, saxophones, and pumping pianos to emphasize the emotion. As rock music started to spread, white money and influence was the main factor to the explosion of the new genre, which is usually why people credit the style to white people. 

Avant-Garde Jazz

1950s-60s, across the United States

John Coltrane

West African elements: Virtuoso

John Coltrane - Ascension (1966)

Starting in the 1950s, many jazz artists moved to the avant-garde genre to be more experimental with their music. Avant-garde jazz heavily features collective improvisation, a technique where multiple players improvise at once as opposed to the conventional improvisation method where one player improvises and the rest of the band plays in the background. Avant-garde jazz combines West African elements in Jazz with harmonic complexity that was being developed contemporaneously in avant-garde classical music by composers such as Schoenberg and Stravinsky and jazz by various jazz musicians. Avant-garde jazz differs from free jazz in that while improvisation is the central focus, the overall structure is planned out. The format encouraged virtuosic playing because it did not follow most musical conventions. Its constantly shifting rhythms meant that there was little repetition or ostinato. The saxophonist John Cotrane later in his career worked in avant-garde jazz, producing multiple albums including one continuous 40 minute track, Ascension.

Kompa

1950 in Haiti

Sweet Mickey

West African Elements:

Rhythm, Virtuoso, Function

Sweet Mickey - Cocorico (1994)

Kompa music emerged during the mid twentieth century in Haiti. Haiti is a former French colony that struggled with many economic, social, and political problems. It became the first nation to ever form from a successful rebellion, revolt against slavery, and revive their musical traditions. Around 1950, Haitian artists like Jean Baptiste and Webert Socoy began adapting elements of traditional Haitian music in their sound. They performed in Haiti’s clubs, carnivals, and festivals, spreading Kompa music throughout the Carribean world. Because of Haiti’s location, Kompa music gained Western, French, Spanish, Taino, and African influences. Kompa music also helped the development of many music genres around the world including the development of Soca (a hybrid music genre in Trinidad and Tobago). While listening to Kompa music, one can capture many elements of West African music. Some of those elements include having a soloist who stands out from the ensemble (lead saxophone backed by drums, trombones, pulsing beats), an upbeat tune (topics of love, celebration, religion, politics), and a strong emphasis on melody and improvisation.

Genre: Fado

Origin: Early 19th Century, Portugal

Song: “Ai Mouraria”, Amalia Rodrigues

West African Elements: Vocality, Function

Fado is a form of Portuguese singing that is associated with pubs, cafés, and restaurants. The genre officially originated in Portugal around the 1820s, however Some believe that Fado came as a dance from Africa in the 19th century and was adopted by the poor on the streets of Lisbon. Others believe that fado was brought to Portugal by the craft of a mixed-race Brazilian musician called Domingos Caldas Barbosa in the mid 18th century. Fado music is the heart of the Portuguese soul. It is one of the oldest urban folk music styles in the world. There are two distinct styles of fado. The Lisbon Style emerged in the first half of the 19th century following the 1822 return to Portugal of the Portuguese government and the Independence of Brazil. It arose in the city’s Alfama district, a socially and economically marginalized area that was a nexus of Iberian, South American (particularly Brazilian), and African peoples and traditions. a diverse array of dance traditions circulated within this area. The second style of fado developed roughly from the 1870s to the 1890s in the university city of Coimbra. This style of fado was a pastime of the privileged classes, and it was performed by men. A fado performance is not successful if the audience is not moved to tears. The function of fado music is to address the hardships of everyday life. By the early twentieth century, fado had become popular in the everyday life of Lisbon’s working class. It was played for pleasure but also to relieve the pain of life. The essential element of fado music is saudade, a Portuguese word that translates as “longing” or “yearning”. Amália Rodrigues, a portuguese singer and actress is known for her passionate and romantic vocality, yet hauntingly tragic, renditions of fado music. She was born in July 1920 in Lisbon, Portugal. In 1945, she obtained her first great musical hit with the song Ai Mouraria and as her fame increased, she began to stretch the traditional boundaries of fado. Modern fado has incorporated new instruments including piano, violin, and accordion.

Genre: Mambo

Origin: Havana, Cuba, 20th Century

Song: “Cherry Pink and Apple Blossom White” - Perez Prado

West African Elements in Song: Ostinato, Rhythm, Virtuoso

Mambo is a popular Cuban originated music and dance style. The name comes from that of a priestess from Haitian Voodoo, who was believed to have been able to hypnotize dancers. The word itself was based on the language that African slaves spoke when brought to the Caribbean. Mambo originally came from the danzón tradition, another type of Cuban music, as the beginnings of mambo were the danzón with a syncopated closing section. Due to this, it is often referred to as danzón-mambo in many Latin American countries. Dámaso Pérez Prado is often referred to as “The King of Mambo” due to his help spreading the popularity of the genre. He first introduced this type of music in 1943 at La Tropicana, a nightclub in Havana, Cuba. Prado eventually introduced his music to Mexico, and finally New York. It became a popular transnational music style once in New York, said to have started the “Mambo Revolution” there. It was played in the Palladium Ballroom, a famous Broadway dance-hall, in a more sophisticated way than the original. Eventually, the Palladium Ballroom became known as “The Temple of Mambo”. One example of a popular mambo song is called “Cherry Pink and Apple Blossom White”.. This song shows the West African Elements of ostinato, rhythm, and virtuoso. Ostinato is shown through drums in the background playing a short, swung tempo that repeats many times. There is a heavy emphasis on rhythm from the percussion beats, and there is a virtuoso from the trumpet in the foreground playing a confident solo. This song has only a few instruments, but mambo songs can consist of almost any, including bongos, congas, timbales, cowbells, claves, guiro, drum sets, flute, clarinet, saxophone, trumpet, trombone, guitar, double bass, and piano. Mambo led to the development of cha-cha and salsa, as well as being credited with helping to mix and absorb cultures when people were fleeing from their countries. Overall, Mambo was/is a very influential and popular music style. 

C Block

2023

Brookline High School 

Since the end of the Civil War, a form of music emerged from the western delta of Mississippi. On one plot of land in Cleveland, Mississippi, owned by a white landowner named Will Dockery, a group of black sharecroppers, led by Henry Sloan, sang songs deep into the humid night. 

Dockery, a recent graduate of Ole Miss, had recently started his cotton plantation on a plot of swampy land in between the Sunflower River and the Yazoo River. As Dockery paid well, and treated his workers fairly, a rarity in the established Jim Crow South of the 1890s, sharecroppers flocked to the startup, and Dockery Plantation became a hub of music in the area.  A young man, Charley Patton, talked about life on Dockery’s Plantation in songs he sang in the early 1900’s. 

Patton’s form of dark, deep blues was a spinoff from other blues, making Patton well known through Mississippi as the “Father of Delta Blues”. However, the music Patton recorded in 1929, was meant to be listened to by black audiences, as white audiences either wouldn't listen for racist reasons, or couldn't comprehend the problems black people in the Delta region faced, not only through Jim Crow, but natural problems as well. The Mississippi River constantly flooded, something Patton sang about in “High Water, Everywhere”. Patton’s type of music influenced the blues music of Memphis, Chicago, etc… and trained blues musicians such as Muddy Waters and Robert Johnson in their own pursuits of blues. 

Genre: Merengue

Origin: Dominican Republic, 1800s

Song: Wilfrido Vargas - “El Baile Del Perrito”

West African Elements in Song: Syncopation, Ostinato, Vocality, Virtuoso

During the 1800s in the Dominican Republic, the vibrant music style and dance of Merengue was created. Merengue music has a fast-paced beat, usually featuring a 4/4 rhythm, and is based upon a quintillo (repeating 5 beat pattern). Merengue music is made with a variety of instruments, including a güira (percussion instrument), tambora (double-headed drum), acoustic guitar, piano, saxophone, djembe (African drum), and the accordion. The dance style was created to complement the music, emphasizing rhythmic movements by shifting with weight on one foot. At times it is used in ballroom dancing competitions. Merengue is the national music and dance style of the Dominican Republic. Because Merengue has roots in Africa, this music and dance style demonstrate unmistakable Afro-Caribbean influences. In the song “El Baile Del Perrito”, some traditional West African musical elements can be found; there is vocality in the dog-like sound effects, virtuoso from the soloist in the teal shirt, syncopation occurs with the quintillo beat pattern, and the phrase “el baile del perrito” is repeated to create strong ostinato. There are many origin myths of how Merengue began. One of the most popular origin stories of Merengue recounts that when slaves were brought to the Dominican Republic, they observed their masters engaging in ballroom dancing. In an attempt to replicate it while making it more fun, they quickened the tempo of the music and dance steps, creating the genre of Merengue that is known today. In the 1960’s, there was a mass migration of Dominicans to the United States, a music capital of the world. This allowed Merengue the opportunity to gain international appeal and appreciation. Merengue continues to grow in popularity today and is enjoyed by people across the world. 

Genre: Puertorican Music in the U.S

Origin: 1940’s-50’s United States

Song: “Plena Plenita,” by Los Pleneros de la 21 (2018)

West African Elements: Virtuoso, call and response, and rhythm 

Puerto Ricans have significantly influenced American music by bringing their instruments and traditions to the U.S. In the 1940’s and 50’s, many Puerto Ricans moved to New York and started contributing to the music people heard on the radio, streets, and in bands. They performed plena, bomba, and salsa, and they contributed a bit to jazz and hip-hop that was performed. In Puertorican music, bomba was a "dialogue between dancer and drummer," while plena sang the day's news. Salsa was very danceable and brought Puerto Rico recognition in the music world. The instruments commonly used in Puertorican music are the guiro, a hollowed-out gourd, and the cuatro, a ten-stringed guitar. Additionally, other instruments that are used are the tambours, maracas, and many types of drums. Using these instruments, Puerto Ricans performed music that became popular in clubs and gained popularity over time. Bomba and plena music was popular in New York City. The song called “Plena Plenita” is in the plena genre and has a ton of call and response. It also has a virtuoso, who is the guy in the center, and the one that usually stands out from the rest. Additionally, there is a lot of rhythm, as there are drums played pretty much all the time. In this song drums, a saxophone, and egg shakers are used. 

Genre: Reggae Roots 

Origin: Jamaica, 1960s

Song: “You Can Get It If You Really Want,” Desmond Dekker, Jimmy Cliff (1970)

West African Elements: 

Function, Ostinato, Vocality

Reggae roots originated in Jamaica in the 1960s and was the original style of reggae before more variations were created later on. It was influenced by Jamaican folk music, African music, and North American pop. More specifically, rocksteady and ska were big influences on reggae roots. In addition to its influences, reggae roots influenced soul, rock, and rhythm and blues. Reggae roots first entered mainstream music in the 1970’s in the United States, Britain, and Jamaica due to popular songs from Bob Marley, Jimmy Cliff, and similar artists. Bob Marley is an example of a very famous reggae roots artist, but there are many more musicians in reggae like UB40, Steel Pulse, and Aswad in the genre. Reggae roots was also largely political. The lyrics often discussed social and economic injustice, and provided a voice for many poor Jamaican people. Some common characteristics of reggae roots songs are off beat accents, 4/4 time, ostinato (many times using electric guitar), complex rhythms, simple harmonies, fading out, loud volume, and the band is usually comprised of drums, bass, guitar, electric guitar, and güiro. The song “You Can Get It If You Really Want” sung by Desmond Dekker and written by Jimmy Cliff, is a happy and upbeat reggae roots song. It was released in 1970 and soon rose to popularity in the UK, US, and Jamaica, helping reggae roots to spread and become a well known and popular genre. In the song there is a trumpet, tambourine, electric guitar, bass, and drum. Some of the West African elements included in this song are encouraging lyrics which serve a political function, ostinato with a catchy repeating phrase of music, and vocality such as falsetto used by Desmond Dekker.

Genre: Axé

Origin: Salvador, Bahia, Brazil, 1980’s 

Song: “O Canto de Cidade” Daniela Mercury (1992) 

West African Elements: 

Virtuoso, Ostinato

Axé music originated in the 1950’s at Salvador's carnival, featuring singers such as Dodô and Osmar. However this style of music wasn’t officially labeled as “axé” until the 1980s Bahian Carnival. It wasn't until 1992, with the release of "O Canto de Cidade" by Daniela Mercury, that axé entered the mainstream in Brazil, eventually becoming an anthem for the Brazilian people. This song has a high tempo and is very upbeat. Mercury is backed by a variety of beats that complement each other, however don’t overlap. The structure of bands in axé usually follow the same pattern. They include a lead singer, backup singers, and a variety of different instruments, including electric guitar, bass, a drum set, keyboards, a percussion section, and sometimes a horn section. The driving beat for axé music makes it good for dancing. Axé is a fusion of many different Afro-Caribbean genres including marcha, reggae, calypso, merengue, and salsa. It also includes strong influences of Brazilian music including frevo, forró and carixada. Modern axé artists like Ivete Sangolo and Claudia Leitte continue to keep this genre alive.