1. Thornton, T.F. & Bhagwat, S.A. (2021) The Routledge Handbook of Indigenous Environmental Knowledge. 1st edition. Routledge, London, 426p.

2. Whaanga, H., Wehi, P., Cox, M., Roa, T., & Kusabs, I. (2018). Māori oral traditions record and convey indigenous knowledge of marine and freshwater resources. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 52(4), 487-496.

3. McCallum, R. E., & Carr, D. J. (2012). Identification and use of plant material for the manufacture of New Zealand indigenous woven objects.

4. Harmsworth, G. R., & Awatere, S. (2013). Indigenous Māori knowledge and perspectives of ecosystems. Ecosystem services in New Zealand—conditions and trends. Manaaki Whenua Press, Lincoln, New Zealand, 274-286.

5. Jones, R. (2007).  Rongoā – Medicinal use of plants. Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/rongoa-medicinal-use-of-plants/print (accessed October 8, 2024).

6. Scientists explore kawakawa’s healing properties. (23 January 2023). The University of Auckland. https://www.auckland.ac.nz/en/news/2023/01/20/scientists-confirm-kawakawa-s-healing-properties.html

7. Kawakawa. (n.d.). Herb Federation of New Zealand. Retrieved from https://herbs.org.nz/herbs/kawakawa/

8. Mānuka/kahikātoa and kānuka. (n.d.). Department of Conservation. Retrieved from https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-plants/manuka-kahikatoa-and-kanuka/

9. Burton, E. (2012). Uses of some common native species—a beginner’s guide to ethnobotany. Wellington Botanical Society Bulletin, 54, 9-17.

10. Typha Orientalis. (2024). New Zealand Plant Conservation Network. Accessed October 8. https://www.nzpcn.org.nz/flora/species/typha-orientalis/.

11. Raupō. (2024). Manaaki Whenua. Accessed October 8. https://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/tools-and-resources/collections/new-zealand-flax-collections/weaving-plants/raupo/.

12. Cabbage tree/tī kōuka. (n.d.). Department of Conservation. Retrieved from https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-plants/cabbage-tree-ti-kouka/

13. Konlechner, T.M. (2016). Sand dunes of the Murihiku District priorities for restoration. University of Otago.

Scientific name: Phormium tenax

Family: Asphodelaceae

Harakeke is found growing in swamps and flood areas throughout New Zealand. It is a large herbaceous plant with straight, long and thick leaves which grow in a fan outwards from the heart of the plant called ‘rito’⁵. The rito and two leaves closest to it are traditionally never harvested, to maintain the plant's health. The plant has tall flower stalks called kōrari³. In Addition to weaving, harakeke also has medicinal uses in Māori culture. The gel from the leaf base was used on wounds as it has antiseptic and hydrating properties, while boiling the leaf is a remedy for gastrointestinal problems⁵. 

This knowledge is created through experiences, experimentation and observation of the environment¹. In many indigenous cultures, including Māori culture, knowledge is often communicated through waiata (songs), art, stories, and whakataukī (proverbs)². Loss of language and cultural practices endangers indigenous knowledge, highlighting the importance of maintaining connections to culture and language. 

Knowledge is considered a taonga in Māori culture, so learning and communicating Matauranga Māori is important for passing on indigenous knowledge³. The conservation of healthy ecosystems and native plants, used for many purposes, is important for people's spiritual and cultural well being⁴.

Scientific name: Typha orientalis

Family: Typhaceae

Raupō grows up to 4 metres tall and grows in marsh and standing water and can dominate wetlands. It is found all over New Zealand. The plant is recognised by the brown flower spikes that grow atop long stems. Raupō is also found in other places such as Australia, Malaysia and Indonesia^10,11. Raupō has many uses in Māori culture. It can be used for making poi (string balls) used for dance, it can also be used for kites (manutukutuku), rafts (mokihi) and sails (rā). It was also used alongside flax to make buoyant boats (mokihi), especially in the south^3,10,11.

Scientific name: Ficinia spiralis 

Family: Cyperaceae

Pīngao is a dune sedge that was once commonly found on New Zealand dunes, but has decreased in abundance due to competition from introduced plants such as marram grass¹³.

Pīngao is grass-like, stiff and yellow/green in appearance, and orange when dried out. The orange of pīngao is used in decorative panels (tukutuku), mats (whariki) and baskets (kete). It is often weaved in with harakeke to add colour³.

Scientific name: Cordyline australis

Family: Asparagaceae

Tī kōuka is a cabbage tree that can grow up to 20 metres, but is usually around 12 metres tall¹². It has long narrow leaves, small white flowers and grows blue/white berries. They are found in the North and South Island, in a wide range of habitats including open land, forest margins and swamps¹². Both the leaf and fibre of tī kōuka can be used. The fibre of the leaves was popular for being durable and not shrinking in water¹². It is used for making kilts (pakipaki), sandals (pāraerae) and rope (taura)³. 

Scientific name: Piper excelsum

Family: Piperaceae

Kawakawa is a Māori taonga with medicinal and culinary uses. It is applied as a balm to treat skin conditions like eczema, bites, and grazes, and is also used for toothache, digestive, and urinary relief. The plant contains pellitorine, which numbs pain. It also contains yangambin, an anti-inflammatory for the cardiovascular system⁶.

Kawakawa is a shrub that grows up to 6 metres tall, with heart-shaped green leaves often marked by holes from the kawakawa looper moth caterpillar.  It is found mainly in the North Island and the northern half of the South Island⁷.

Scientific name: Leptospermum scoparium

Family: Myrtaceae

Mānuka is a shrub or small tree with small leaves and white or pink flowers, found across New Zealand’s North, South, and Stewart Islands. It thrives in a diverse range of habitats, from lowland wetlands to low alpine areas, and is highly tolerant to various environmental conditions⁸.

Mānuka’s medicinal uses include treating wounds due to its antimicrobial properties. Leaves are boiled for tea or inhalation to help with respiratory and digestive issues, while the bark and leaves’ anti-inflammatory properties are used for pain relief and inflammation⁹.