• How was the work of Copernicus, Bruno, Galileo, and Newton all constrained by the moral worldviews of the societies they operated in? 

• How did the rise of tolerance change the way scientists were permitted to carry out their experimentation, and which philosophers were crucial in creating this change?

Refer to ideas from the lesson to write your answer.

2. Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics

3. Quantum Mechanics (Probabilistic Reality) 4. Prions (Infectious Proteins)

5. The Dinosaur Extinction

2. How gender is determined by genes

3. Causes of Earthquakes

4. Masks during COVID-19

5. Accepting the idea of vaccination

2. Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection (Charles Darwin, 1859)

What Darwin proposed:
Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species in 1859, explaining that all living organisms evolved over millions of years from common ancestors. He argued that natural selection — the process by which individuals with traits better suited to their environment survive and reproduce — drives evolution. Over time, this leads to new species.

Why it was difficult for society to accept:

• Religious conflict: At the time, most people in Europe believed in the Biblical creation story — that God created all species separately and humans were made in God’s image. Darwin’s idea that humans evolved from other animals seemed to deny divine creation and reduce humanity’s special status.

• Cultural shock: The idea that humans shared a common ancestor with apes was shocking and even insulting to many Victorians.

• Lack of visible evidence: Fossil records were limited then, so many saw his theory as speculation rather than proof.

Social and scientific reaction:

• Public controversy: Churches and religious leaders condemned Darwin’s work. Debates between scientists and religious figures (like the famous 1860 Oxford debate between Thomas Huxley and Bishop Wilberforce) became major public events.

• Scientific resistance: Some scientists rejected it because it lacked a clear mechanism for inheritance — genetics wasn’t yet understood (Gregor Mendel’s work came later).

• Gradual acceptance: Over time, as more fossil evidence and genetic research appeared, Darwin’s theory became the foundation of modern biology.

3. Germ Theory of Disease (Louis Pasteur & Robert Koch, 19th century)

4. Plate Tectonics (Alfred Wegener, early 20th century)

5. Quantum Mechanics (Early 20th century — Planck, Einstein, Heisenberg, etc.)

2. Theory of evolution

3. Big Bang

4. Continental drift Theory

5. Theory of relativity

To add onto 3....

Fish and frogs can change their gender and can morph into what they need, back and fourth. So.

-19

• What it was: Semmelweis discovered that handwashing with antiseptic drastically reduced deaths in childbirth.

  
  

Wegener’s Continental Drift (1912)

• What it was: Alfred Wegener proposed that continents drifted across Earth’s surface.

  
  

Barry Marshall & Stomach Ulcers (1980s)

• What it was: Marshall and Warren showed that bacteria (H. pylori) cause ulcers, not stress or spicy food.

  
  

Mendel’s Genetics Work (1860s)

• What it was: Gregor Mendel discovered the basic laws of heredity using pea plants.

  
  

  Creationism →Theory of Evolution

  • Religious Belief:
    According to the Book of Genesis in the Old Testament, God created the world and humans in six days.

  • Scientific Discovery:
    Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution (1859) proposed that all living organisms evolved from a common ancestor through natural selection.

  • Reaction:
    The religious community strongly criticized the idea. Many saw it as blasphemous to suggest that humans are related to apes.

  • Today:
    Evolution is supported by overwhelming scientific evidence and is a fundamental theory in biology. However, some religious groups—especially in parts of the southern United States—still reject it.Creationism → Theory of Evolution

    • Religious Belief:
      According to the Book of Genesis in the Old Testament, God created the world and humans in six days.

    • Scientific Discovery:
      Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution (1859) proposed that all living organisms evolved from a common ancestor through natural selection.

    • Reaction:
      The religious community strongly criticized the idea. Many saw it as blasphemous to suggest that humans are related to apes.

    • Today:
      Evolution is supported by overwhelming scientific evidence and is a fundamental theory in biology. However, some religious groups—especially in parts of the southern United States—still reject it.

→Ignaz Semmelweis found that Hand washing saves lives by preventing diseases. He experimented on people by making them not wash their hands. Mortality rates increased, but at that time, nobody cared.

2.Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection (Charles Darwin, 1859)

3.Germ Theory of Disease (Louis Pasteur & Robert Koch, 19th century)

4.Theory of Relativity (Albert Einstein, 1905–1915)

5.Plate Tectonics (Alfred Wegener, early 20th century)

2. Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection 3.Quantum Mechanics,

4.Relativity

5.The Big Bang Theory

2. Covid vaccine

3. The theory that humans are the evolution of monkeys

4. Artificial Intelligence

5. Climate change

Heliocentric theory

This states that the sun is at the center of the solar system and the Earth and other planets revolve around it. It challenged the geocentric theory that was mainly supported by the church. This theory was important because it changed how humans understand the universe and helped modern science.

2: AI

3: Mental Illness as a medical condition

4: Vaccines

5: Nuclear Energy

・Generative AI

・Eugenics

・Gender Identity Disorder

・LAWS（Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems）

Theory of evolution was the theory of how people and other species will evolve over time.

It conflicted with literal interpretations of religious stories.

・Climate change

Burning fossil fuels are causing to make earth more warmer.

It threatens powerful economic and political interests.

・Plate tectonics

The continents of the earth are drifting over time. It contradicted the long held idea that continents were fixed. Many geologists rejected Wegener’s theory for decades before evidence (seafloor spreading, paleomagnetism) proved it correct.

・Earth are round

To the naked eye, the Earth looks flat and the ground doesn’t seem curved, and people don’t feel like they’re on a sphere spinning through space. Early people trusted direct sensory experience more than abstract reasoning.

・Big band theory

The idea that the universe began from an extremely dense, hot state and has been expanding ever since it overturned the belief in an eternal, unchanging universe and raised theological as well as philosophical debates about creation and time.

The Sun is moving at the center, and the other planets orbit around the Sun.

This theory was first introduced by Copernicus. However, at that time there was widly spread belief that the Earth is the center of the space. Also, the Christian church was justifying that theory. Because of this, Copernicus's idea was not accepted. It took about 200 years for the heliocentric theory to get accepted by the general people.

Germ Theory of Disease

Vaccination

The Atomic Theory

Impact Theory of Dinosaur Extinction