Chem4u by KHOR SWEE MOI

Soap

sweemoi — 2018-03-13 14:01:14 UTC

What is soap?
How to prepare soap?
How does soap clean oily stains on shirts?

Detergent

sweemoi — 2018-03-13 14:05:16 UTC

What is detergent?
How to prepare detergent?
What are the additives in detergent and their functions?

Food Additives

sweemoi — 2018-03-13 14:06:17 UTC

What are the types of food additives ?
Can you give some examples and their function?
Take photos of few examples of food label. Identify type of food additives and their function.
Discuss (a) the rationale for the use of food additives,
(b) the effect of food additives on health and the environment,
(c) life without food additives.

Traditional Medicines

sweemoi — 2018-03-13 14:10:17 UTC

What are examples of traditional medicines used in your daily life. Find out their sources and uses.
Justify the use of traditional medicines

Modern Medicines

sweemoi — 2018-03-13 14:12:22 UTC

List the type of modern medicines and their examples and functions.
Find out the side effects of modern medicines
What is the correct usage of modern medicines?

Q1 Modern Medicine

nkadibah2001 — 2018-03-21 06:22:59 UTC

Analgesics

(of a drug) acting to relieve pain.
example : aspirin, paracetamol & codeine
functions :
- relieves pain / anti-inflammatory
- reduce fever/ headache
- treat arthritis.

Antibiotics

inhibits the growth of or destroys infectious microorganisms.
example : penicillin & streptomycin
functions :
- treat tuberculosis,
- used to treat bacterial diseases, eg. pneumonia, syphilis & gonorrhea
- cannot destroy viruses

Psychotherapeutic medicine

a group of dru9s that change the emotions and behaviour of the patient (used to treat mental/ emotional illness)
example :
Stimulants (amphetamines, caffeine)
Antidepressants
(tranquiliser, barbiturate)
Antipsychotic medicine
(haloperidol, lithium carbonate, chloropromazine)
functions :
- elevate mood
- increase alertness
- alleviate depression
-relieve anxiety
-treat mental illness
(eg. schizophrenia)

1. examples of traditional medicine, their sources and uses

intannajihah37 — 2018-03-21 17:23:52 UTC

Plant : Garlic

Part of the plant used : Corm

Uses: For preventing fluattack

For reducing highblood pressure

Plant : Ginger

Part of the plant used : Rhizome(horizontalundergroundstem)and leaves

Uses : For treating stomachpain due to wind in thestomach

For supplying heatenergy to keep thebody warm

For preventing fluattack

Plant : Aloe vera

Part of the plant used : Leaves

Uses : For preventing itchyskin

For treating burns(scalding) on the skin

Plant : Lemon (lime)

Part of the plant used : Fruits

Uses : For treating boils orabscesses on the skin

For preventing fluattack

For treating skindiseases

Plant : Quinine

Part of the plant used : Bark of Chinchonatree

Uses : For treating malaria

For preventing musclecramps

Plant : Ginseng

Part of the plant used : Roots

Uses : As a tonic to improvethe overall health of human beings

For increasing energy,endurance andreducing fatigue

Plant : Lemon grass
Part of the plant used : Stem/leaves

Uses : Has antibacterial andantifungal properties

For treating cough

Plant : Tongkat Ali

Part of the plant used : Roots

Uses : As a tonic for after abirth and general health

Detergent ✌

aishahayy — 2018-03-22 08:02:25 UTC

Q1. What is a detergent
what people think: substance to wash your clothes

what chemist people think :

a cleansing agent, any of numerous synthetic water-soluble or liquid organic preparations that are chemically different from soaps but are able to emulsify oils, hold dirt in suspension, and act as wetting agents.
A detergent is similar to a soap, but with a general structure R-SO₄^-, Na⁺, where R is a long-chain alkyl group.

Q2. How to prepare detergent
(teacher i read all about the water tension and how by adding surfactants it can reduce the water tension but i think by watching this video we can understand more 😊
p/s: video at the end )

Q3.🌹 The additives in detergent and their functions
Only 20% of contents in a detergent are surfactants. The rest of the contents are detergent additives.
Detergent additives are used to enhance the cleaning efficiency.

Biological enzymes (amylase, lipase) To break down and remove stains such as proteins,fats,carbohydrates,bloods and oils.
Builder (sodium phosphate, sodium tripolyphosphate) To enhance the surfactants efficiency by lowering the water hardness because magnesium and calcium ions will combine with phosphate ions to form metal phosphate precipitates.
Filler (Drying agent) (sodium sulphate, sodium silicate) To make the solid detergent dry and enable the liquid detergent to be poured easily.
Fragrance 🌹 To give detergent and fabrics a better smell.
Stabilising agent To lower the production of foam especially during the usage in a washing machine.
Whitening agent (sodium hypochlorite,sodium percarbonate, sodium perborate) To bleach the white fabrics but does not bleach the dye on the coloured fabrics.
Suspension agent
(sodium carboxymethylcelluose) To increase the negative charge on cellulosic fabrics such as cotton and rayon. This will prevent the dirt particles removed from redepositing onto the cleaned fabrics.

This is for Q2 👗 👕 👔

TRADITIONAL MEDICINES

2018-03-22 15:33:45 UTC

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 80 percent of the world’s population still uses traditional remedies, including plants, as their primary health care tools
The majority of new 🤬 (70 percent) introduced in the US are derived from natural products, primarily plants
Ginger may help relieve headaches, joint pain, motion sickness, and nausea while lavender is anti-fungal with calming properties
Garlic is antibacterial and antiviral, and may help boost your immune function, while peppermint is a decongestant that may help clear your respiratory tract

2.Herbal medicines are an important part of healthcare throughout the world. In many countries including the U.S., herbal medicines are not regulated as extensively as conventional drug therapy. At present, there is a dearth of research evaluating the use of herbal medicines, especially in clinical trials. This, together with the ongoing development of new conventional drug therapies, compounds the number of unknown outcomes when using elements of these two treatment approaches together. Although many benefits can be derived from the use of herbs, potential areas of concern include possible product contamination and/or adulterations, potential toxicity, high potential of known and unknown drug/herb interactions, and substituting proven conventional medicine with herbal medicine. Mechanisms involved in herb-drug interactions are not fully understood, but both pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic processes may play a role. Because these can occur in 30-40% of older adults, health care providers and patients must be aware of potential interactions in order to monitor for alterations in therapeutic efficacy and/or potential toxicity. With the advances of the internet and increased emphasis on a global economy, consumers have much greater access to herbal products from anywhere in the world. A number of concerns arise when obtaining herbal medicines from the internet, as currently there is no system in place to verify legitimacy of sites. Additionally, there are cost implications with a worldwide herbal medicine market estimated at US $83 billion annually. The worldwide implementation of standards for growing, selecting, manufacturing, conducting appropriate clinical trials, and treating patients with herbal medicines is necessary. The World Health Organizations has provided a number of technical guidelines to standardized herbal medicines throughout the world. Pharmacists are in prime position to help and monitor the use of herbal medicines, especially in older adults. Strategies for the safe use of herbs should include educational efforts directed at both the consumers and healthcare providers about the benefits and dangers of herbs and encouraging providers to ask their patients about their use of herbs without being judgmental, ensuring open communication with patients. Integrative Medicine, which is defined in the U.S. by the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine as “a practice that combines both conventional and CAM treatments for which there is evidence of safety and effectiveness” has been gradually gaining acceptance within conventional medicine and should be considered the model of the future of healthcare

Soaps are water-soluble sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids. Soaps are made from fats and oils, or their fatty acids, by treating them chemically with a strong alkali.

AinaAfrinaMohdFaisal — 2018-03-23 07:11:07 UTC

Humaira'Foo

2018-03-24 04:37:07 UTC

1. Definition of soap:
a substance used with water for washing and cleaning, made of a compound of natural oils or fats with sodium hydroxide or another strong alkali, and typically having perfume and colouring added.

1. Soap in chemistry:
Soaps are water-soluble sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids. Soaps are made from fats and oils, or their fatty acids, by treating them chemically with a strong alkali.
-
Fats and Oils

The fats and oils used in soapmaking come from animal or plant sources. Each fat or oil is made up of a distinctive mixture of several different triglycerides.

In a triglyceride molecule, three fatty acid molecules are attached to one molecule of glycerine. There are many types of triglycerides; each type consists of its own particular combination of fatty acids.

Fatty acids are the components of fats and oils that are used in making soap. They are weak acids composed of two parts:

A carboxylic acid group consisting of one hydrogen (H) atom, two oxygen (O) atoms, and one carbon (C) atom, plus a hydrocarbon chain attached to the carboxylic acid group. Generally, it is made up of a long straight chain of carbon (C) atoms each carrying two hydrogen (H) atoms.

2. How Soaps are Made

Saponification of fats and oils is the most widely used soapmaking process. This method involves heating fats and oils and reacting them with a liquid alkali to produce soap and water (neat soap) plus glycerine.

General Equation of Saponification

The other major soapmaking process is the neutralization of fatty acids with an alkali. Fats and oils are hydrolyzed (split) with a high-pressure steam to yield crude fatty acids and glycerine. The fatty acids are then purified by distillation and neutralized with an alkali to produce soap and water (neat soap).

When the alkali is sodium hydroxide, a sodium soap is formed. Sodium soaps are "hard" soaps. When the alkali is potassium hydroxide, a potassium soap is formed. Potassium soaps are softer and are found in some liquid hand soaps and shaving creams.

The carboxylate end of the soap molecule is attracted to water. It is called the hydrophilic (water-loving)

end. The hydrocarbon chain is attracted to oil and grease and repelled by water. It is known as the hydrophobic (water-hating) end.

3.How does soap help us wash clothes?

Surface tension

In order to make water molecules spread/diffuse on a given surface, you have to reduce their surface tension. But how is it done?

This is where surfactants enter the picture. Surfactants are substances that help lower the surface tension of water molecules, thus ‘persuading’ them to wet things more uniformly.

Soaps (which are a type of detergent) contain surfactants in significant amounts, which help water spread uniformly over clothes. However, this is only one thing about soaps that help clean clothes; the other is the chemical structure of soap

Take a look at the chemical structure of soap in the following image:

Chemical structure of a soap

As you can see, one end (the head) of the soap molecule is hydrophilic; this part has a strong affinity for water molecules (in other words, it loves water). The other end (the tail) of the soap is hydrophobic; this part tries to stay away from water molecules, as it has a strong aversion to it. However, it does love dirt and grime. These two parts of a soap molecule, given that they have a contrasting disposition towards water molecules, is why soap is so effective for washing clothes.

How soaps separate dirt from cloth (Image Source: Wikipedia)

The hydrophobic tail attaches itself to grime and dirt, while the hydrophilic head gets affixed to water molecules. Therefore, when the dirty clothes are put inside a washing machine or swished vigorously by hand, dirt is pulled away from the cloth and washed away in the water, leaving the cloth sparkling clean.

Source(s):
1.-https://www.scienceabc.com/pure-sciences/how-soap-detergent-work-saponification-hydrophobic-hydrophilic-dirty.html
2.-http://www.cleaninginstitute.org/clean_living/soaps__detergents_chemistry.aspx

2. Justify the use of traditional medicines.

heichouqillia — 2018-03-24 07:35:26 UTC

First, we must be exposed about the benefits of using traditional medicines.

1. The herb more effective for long-standing health complaints. The side affects also few and it means more suitable to our health.
2. The cost is minimal. Some of herb can be plant in our house.
3. Herbal medicine is very effective in reduce excess weight. It can decrease the risk to get obesity.
4. It is easy to find in any pharmacy or health store. No need to bought with a prescription.
5. Many herb medicine help to treat to treat coronary artery disease and reduce cholesterol level in the blood stream.

Food Additives

2018-03-24 08:39:58 UTC

Food additives are chemicals added to foods to keep them fresh or to enhance their colour, flavour or texture.

1.

Anti-caking agents – stop ingredients from becoming lumpy.
Antioxidants – prevent foods from oxidising, or going rancid.
Artificial sweeteners – increase the sweetness.
Emulsifiers – stop fats from clotting together.
Food acids – maintain the right acid level.
Colours – enhance or add colour.
Humectants – keep foods moist.
Flavours – add flavour.
Flavour enhancers – increase the power of a flavour.
Foaming agents – maintain uniform aeration of gases in foods.
Preservatives – stop microbes from multiplying and spoiling the food.
Thickeners and vegetable gums – enhance texture and consistency.
Stabilisers and firming agents – maintain even food dispersion.
Glazing agent – improves appearance and can protect food.
Gelling agents – alter the texture of foods through gel formation.
Raising agents – increase the volume of food through the use of gases.
Bulking agents – increase the volume of food without major changes to its available energy

2. MSG - Monosodium glutamate enhances flavour of food
Tartrazine - Used in food coloring
Aspartame - to sweeten foods
Benzoates such as sodium benzoate and benzoic acid - preserve food

3.

Example of food additives

2018-03-24 09:03:21 UTC

Examples of Traditional Medicine

2018-03-24 10:21:05 UTC

AMERA SOFEA

Yerba Mansa (Anemopsis californica)

An attractive plant that grows in wet soil throughout the southern two thirds of California, yerba mansa is found along seeps and wet places elsewhere in the Southwest as well, from Texas to Baja California. When in flower, it’s hard to mistake yerba mansa for anything else: its striking white, sunflower-like blooms are held four or five inches above a spreading mat of flat, gray-green leaves with a waxy coating.

Yerba mansa was and is held in high regard by many Native peoples in California and elsewhere. Mexican curanderos regard the plant as something like a cure-all; Spanish settlers in present-day Mexico and Texas adopted its use from local Native people as early as the 17^thCentury.

California Native peoples from the coastal Chumash to the desert Shoshone have used yerba mansa as an anaesthetic and antiseptic for a very long time. Its dried roots, ground into a powder, are used to relieve sore throats in much the same way as the eastern North American plant goldenseal. As wild goldenseal is endangered due to overharvesting, some have suggested that yerba mansa, which is easily cultivated, might offer a more ecologically benign herbal throat medicine.

The leaves also play a role in traditional herbal medicine, with an infusion often used externally on small wounds as an antiseptic. An infusion of the roots is more widely used. The first person who thought of using yerba mansa as a medicine was likely following her nose: the roots have a strong smell containing notes of camphor and eucalyptus.

Among the chemical constituents found in yerba mansa is methyl eugenol, commonly used to impart a clove-like flavor to processed foods. Methyl eugenol acts as an antispasmodic and anaesthetic, which likely explains at least some of yerba mansa’s persistent popularity as an herbal medicine.

A note of caution, however: methyl eugenol is a known mutagen, and a likely carcinogen in humans.

Creosote (Larrea tridentata)

Here’s another medicinal plant that is both widely used and worthy of some caution. Creosote, often called “chaparral” by herbalists, is likely the most common woody plant in the Mojave and Sonoran deserts. In many places in the hot desert lowlands, especially in summer when the spring annuals have died back, creosote might be the only vascular plant growing for hundreds of feet in any direction.

Sniff creosote leaves on one of those hot summer days and you won’t be surprised that people have thought to use it as a plant medicine. The leaves’ pungent resinous smell has contributed to at least one common name for the plant, the Spanish “hediondilla” or “little stinker.”

Peoples throughout the deserts used creosote leaves, both externally and internally, for a range of complaints. The Paiutes used (and still use) creosote leaf tea to treat colds, gastrointestinal complaints and skin conditions. Shoshone people used the tea as a diuretic as well. A range of different peoples record using the leaves as a poultice for sore muscles and minor wounds, and bathing in an infusion of creosote was also used to relieve menstrual discomfort. A number of different preparations of the leaves, from a fresh paste to powder to plasters, were used as topical disinfectants for wounds and sores. Today, creosote is still widely used among Native and non-Native people alike — though not as widely sold in herb stores.

The reason that creosote (a.k.a. “chaparral”) came off shelves is likely the same reason Native peoples used it for various ailments: nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA), a highly reactive antioxidant. NDGA isn’t the only antioxidant in creosote leaves: more than 20 flavonoids occur in the chemical cocktail generated by creosote leaves. But if you were to extract all the antioxidants in creosote leaves and weigh them, NDGA would make up about 40 percent of the total.

NDGA has been examined and tested abundantly in the laboratory, and found to possess a range of properties that offer promise in treatment of various modern-day illnesses. It is the subject of continuing study by cancer researchers, who have found that high concentrations of NDGE can inhibit anaerobic respiration in cancer cells, slowing or reversing tumor growth. The problem is that high concentrations of NDGA may also cause liver and kidney problems, especially in people with pre-existing weaknesses in those organs. Some studies have shown that lower doses of NDGA actually promote growth of existing tumors, while others suggest that the chemical may inhibit cells from becoming cancerous in the first place, so the scientists are still examining the chemical.

A number of the other flavonoids in creosote’s chemical cocktail have been found to act as antibacterials or antimicrobials. Four of those flavonoids, of a type called 3-methoxyflavones, can keep viruses such as the polio virus and rhinoviruses from duplicating themselves in host cells, making them potentially effective antiviral 🤬. There are eight other methoxyflavones in creosote leaves that may have similar properties.

Several cases of creosote toxicity have been recorded since the plant was touted as a cancer cure in the late 1980s, some resulting in serious long-term injury to the liver and other organs. It’s been suggested that these incidents mainly stem from people consuming large amounts of the powdered leaves internally, a practice that was and is uncommon to nonexistent among traditional Native users of the plant. Nonetheless, the FDA removed NDGA from its “Generally Recognized As Safe” list of food additives in 1970 due to concerns over its toxicity in rats, and issued a 1992 warning on the use of dried creosote leaves. (The FDA admitted that some of the illnesses may have been caused by mislabeling of other materials as “chaparral.”)

Death camas (Toxicoscordium)

Go back up to the top of this article and re-read the disclaimer. Then take a second look at the name in bold at the head of this entry. Then consider that the several species of death camas in California now bear the Latin name Toxicoscordium. (Many people know it by its older name Zigadenus.)Then further consider the southern Pomo name for this plant, “tsim' bu,” “harmful bulb,” just one example of dozens of cautionary names in Native languages for the death camas.

What do all these pieces of information convey to us? A simple warning: Do not ingest death camas under any circumstances.Consumption of a fairly small amount of death camas can cause blood pressure crashes, cardiac arrhythmia, loss of muscle control, paralysis, and the suite of poisoning symptoms for which toxicologists use the mnemonic acronym “SLUDGE”: Salivation, Lacrimation (Tears), Urination, Defecation, GI upset, and Emesis (vomiting). And then there's the side effect mentioned on the label: death. Prompt medical attention can often facilitate a complete recovery from everything but that last-mentioned effect, but it still hardly seems worth it.

Most people who consume death camas do so after mistaking the bulbs for other, less deadly edible underground plant parts, but all parts of the plant are poisonous. It’s thus completely unsurprising that death camas would attract the attention of the first Traditional Ecological Knowledge researchers thousands of years ago. When a plant is that poisonous, that means something is going on inside that plant that is very powerful, and power can often be used for good as well as ill.

So it’s equally unsurprising that traditional Native healers had a couple very cautious uses for death camas, mainly applying the bulbs externally to bruises and sprains for pain control. Some people mashed the bulbs fresh and applied them for up to 12 hours; others roasted the bulbs first.

As it turns out, the same active ingredients that make death camas so dangerous may account for the plant’s use as a topical analgesic and antispasmodic. All parts of the death camas contain neurotoxic alkaloids, the most common being the steroidal alkaloid zygacine.

Zygacine and its close cousins in death camas plants interfere with the transport of sodium across cell membranes by physically blocking the channels through which cell membranes actively transport sodium ions into the cell. That’s a problem, because active transport of sodium ions across cell membranes is absolutely necessary for transmitting signals through nerve cells, as well as for muscle cells to know when to contract and relax.

By interfering with that signaling, zygacine can cause nervous system failure, muscular paralysis, and — understandably, considering that the heart is just another muscle — cardiac arrest.

But sometimes you want nerves to stop signaling quite so much, and you want muscles to ignore nerve signals telling them to contract. Painkillers work — to oversimplify — by making nerves shut up for a minute. Muscle relaxants work by making muscles ignore the nerve signals telling them to contract for no reason. If applying a poultice of death camas to a bruised and spasming muscle allowed a little bit of zygacine to enter the skin at the affected area, it may well have functioned as an effective analgesic and antispasmodic. Roasting the bulbs may have reduced their potency for greater safety, or created breakdown products of zygacine or related alkaloids.

And again: we have safer alternatives, including the aspirin chemists derived from willow bark a century ago. Death camas is now best used as a nice flower to look at in a spring meadow. But its historical use is a good reminder of the resourcefulness and deep familiarity with living things found in many Traditional Ecological Knowledge practices.

Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)

The Douglas fir is probably the safest traditional plant medicine on this list: safe, that is, unless a big one falls on you. Growing from northern California northward to British Columbia, the Doug fir is one of the most common and easily recognizable conifers along the Pacific coast. (The closely related bigcone Douglas fir, Pseudotsuga macrocarpa, grows in southern California mountains and is similar enough that it might as well be lumped in with its cousin for purposes of this discussion.)

Douglas fir was and is used in a number of different ways in Native traditional medical practice, from using the resinous sap as a salve to bathing in the smoky steam from fresh leafy branches placed on a fire. The use that persists today with the most popularity is drinking a tea made from the most recent spring growth of needles and small twigs.

The tea is pleasant tasting, surprisingly lemony with a complex and subtle bouquet of other citrus, pine and camphor. Essential oils and terpenes are the reason for the flavor. Douglas fir twigs and leaves contain a complex cocktail of these chemicals with imposing names, with alpha- and beta-pinene, sabinene, delta-3-carene, terpinolene, and limonene making up four fifths of the total.

The pinenes in Douglas fir have been found to possess antiseptic and antifungal properties, and have been used as expectorants and bronchodilators. Limonene is reputed to help with mild stomach problems, and the camphoraceous aroma of Douglas fir tea certainly has opened its share of mildly stuffed sinuses.

Douglas fir tea also contains significant amounts of vitamin C, and the precursor chemicals for vitamin A. These may not seem particularly medicinal; they’re necessary nutrients rather than 🤬. But when you recall that most of human history has been conducted without convenience stores close at hand, and people depended on seasonally available food for all their vitamins and minerals, the medical importance of Vitamin C in particular becomes clearer. Dietary sources of Vitamin C are mainly fruits and leafy green vegetables, both of which can be in short supply in winter, and potatoes, which were not available in pre-contact California so far as we know.

A deficiency in Vitamin C can lead to scurvy, an unpleasant disease that is fatal if untreated. People with scurvy respond rapidly to taking Vitamin C, improving substantially in just a few days and often recovering completely within a month or so. Which would make Douglas fir tea, available year round, a very important medicine when the stored fruit supply ran low.

Blue elderberry (Sambucus nigra)

This rangy shrub is everywhere in California: it even grows in a few places in the hot deserts in the southeastern part of the state. It grows in a lot of other places, too: the species grows throughout North America and Europe. Sambucus nigrais diverse enough in appearance that botanists have often divided it into a few smaller species: many California native plant fans will have learned the local blue elderberry as Sambucus mexicana, or by other names still.

In California, the subspecies Sambucus nigra caerulea is an attractive, towering shrub with clusters of white flowers in spring and waxy-looking blue berries in summer. When ripe, flowers and the ripe berries are the only edible parts of this plant, and some sources recommend cooking the berries just to be on the safe side, as a few cases of mild gastrointestinal distress have been reported from eating raw ripe berries. All other parts of the plant are toxic: they contain alkaloids like sambucine, a strong purgative and emetic, and hydrocyanic acid, which the body converts to cyanide and which is thus dangerous if consumed in large amounts. (Think peach pits: one doesn’t have enough hydrocyanic acid to 🤬 you, but a few might.)

Elderberries are a great source of Vitamins C and A, and of other nutrients as well.

That sambucine contributed to Native use of elder bark in small doses as a laxative, and in larger doses as an emetic. Leaves were used this way as well: The Ohlone peoples in the East San Francisco Bay area made a tea of the leaves for internal consumption as a purgative. The flowers, often prepared as a tea, have been used to induce sweating and clear congested sinuses, as well as in antiinflammatory and diuretic roles.

But it’s the berries that saw the plant’s widest use as a medicine, partially because of their flavor when cooked and partially due to their safety compared to other parts of the elderberry plant. That’s not just true for Native peoples in California: people across the plant’s range from Oregon to Austria have used the berries for medicinal purposes, as a tonic, a mild laxative (when raw), to treat scurvy, and as a general tonic.

Elderberries’ nutritive value is impressive: they’re good sources of Vitamins C and B6, a great source of Vitamin A (with 10 times the Vitamin A of cranberries, grapes, and blueberries; 20 times that of raspberries; and 50 times as much Vitamin A as strawberries) as well as healthy doses of iron, phosphorus, and just plain old calories.

So from a medical standpoint, elderberries were clearly well-suited to helping fix nutritional deficiencies. But the fruit also contains other constituents that may be more strictly pharmaceutical in their effects. In particular, elderberries contain a large amount of a class of chemicals called anthocyanins, plant pigments in the chemical group known as flavonoids that act as antioxidants. The two most abundant anthocyanins in elderberry fruit, with the imposing names cyanidin 3-glucoside and cyanidin 3-sambubioside, are powerful antioxidants that seem to be more stable in storage than antioxidants found in other fruit.

The role antioxidants play in human health is a matter of some disagreement, especially since agricultural interests seized on the term as a healthy-seeming marketing tool. But it’s pretty well established that some antioxidants play a critical role in human health. Oxygen-rich compounds such as hydrogen peroxide, hypochlorous acid and hydroxyl ions are generated when oxygen interacts with other compounds in the cell. These reactive substances can cause chemical chain-reactions that result in damage to important parts of the cell such as DNA molecules — which can then lead to bigger problems like cancer and degenerative diseases. Antioxidants are used in living cells to block these chain reactions, limiting the amount of damage.

There have been a lot of claims made that nutritional antioxidants — the kind you get from eating instead of having your body make them on its own — can help slow or even reverse the onset of diseases like Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s, and even normal aging. Those ideas have not been proven to most medical researchers’ satisfaction.

But no one disputes that nutritional antioxidants are very important in limiting damage caused by oxidation, and that that kind of damage is linked to ailments from atherosclerosis to cancer. So while it may not be true that eating antioxidants like elderberry anthocyanins will cure whatever disease you’ve got, it may help you keep from getting it in the first place.

In other areas, Israeli virologist Madeline Mumcuoglu reported a couple decades ago that constituents in elderberry extract disabled hemagglutinin spikes — protein formations — on the outside of some viruses. That reduced the viruses’ ability to penetrate cell walls and replicate themselves, which inhibited the viruses’ ability to spread. She has since claimed success in treating influenza with elderberry extract, saying that test subjects who received the extract got well about four days sooner than a group that received a placebo. Other researchers have reported that a commercially available elderberry extract can stimulate immune system response, which could conceivably be helpful in fighting certain diseases, and possibly make things worse for allergies or autoimmune disorders where the immune system is already working too well.

Not bad for something that tastes good enough that you could put it on your pancakes.

syaza eudora

2018-03-24 10:52:52 UTC

Plant : Garlic

Part of the plant used : Corm

Uses: For preventing fluattack

For reducing highblood pressure

Plant : Ginger

Part of the plant used : Rhizome(horizontalundergroundstem)and leaves

Uses : For treating stomachpain due to wind in thestomach

For supplying heatenergy to keep thebody warm

For preventing fluattack

Plant : Aloe vera

Part of the plant used : Leaves

Uses : For preventing itchyskin

For treating burns(scalding) on the skin

Plant : Lemon (lime)

Part of the plant used : Fruits

Uses : For treating boils orabscesses on the skin

For preventing fluattack

For treating skindiseases

Plant : Quinine

Part of the plant used : Bark of Chinchonatree

Uses : For treating malaria

For preventing musclecramps

Plant : Ginseng

Part of the plant used : Roots

Uses : As a tonic to improvethe overall health of human beings

For increasing energy,endurance andreducing fatigue

Plant : Lemon grass
Part of the plant used : Stem/leaves

Uses : Has antibacterial andantifungal properties

For treating cough

Plant : Tongkat Ali

Part of the plant used : Roots

Uses : As a tonic for after abirth and general health

traditional medicine

sorfina1 — 2018-03-24 14:08:00 UTC

question one
1. Onion
-for hypertension
-toothache
2. Basil
- relieve gas
-sooth stomache upsets
3. garlic
-natural antiseptic
4. rosemary
-anti-oxidant
5. cinnamon
-lowers blood pressure

question two
1. free from side effects
2. more cost effective (especially in third world countries)
3. traditional medicine is from nature, and nature is everywhere.

Nurmisha Maisarah

2018-03-24 15:43:42 UTC

1.WHAT IS SOAP ?
Soaps are water-soluble sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids.Soaps are made of a compound of natural oils or fats with sodium hydroxide or another strong alkali.

2. HOW TO PREPARE SOAP ?
Saponification-The process of Making Soap.

Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids. When triglycerides in fat/oil react with aqueous NaOH or KOH, they are converted into soap and glycerol. This is called alkaline hydrolysis of esters. Since this reaction leads to the formation of soap, it is called the Saponification process.

The soap molecule has two parts: a polar group (-COO^-Na⁺) and a non-polar group (R-hydrocarbon part). The polar group is called the head and the non-polar group is called the tail. Thus, the soap molecule has a polar head and a non-polar hydrocarbon tail. The polar head is hydrophilic in nature (water loving) and the non-polar tail is hydrophobic (water repelling) in nature.

The saponification reaction is exothermic in nature, because heat is liberated during the process. The soap formed remains in suspension form in the mixture. Soap is precipitated as a solid from the suspension by adding common salt to the suspension. This process is called Salting out of Soap.

3. HOW DOES SOAP CLEANS OILY STAINS ON SHIRT ?

Surface tension
Water molecules have a tendency to stick together, as opposed to losing their fellow water molecules’ company and sticking to other surfaces. This happens as a result of something known as the ‘surface tension’ of water. Surface tension is the reason why water droplets are spherical in shape, as a sphere is the shape that minimizes surface tension among water molecules.Soaps (which are a type of detergent) contain surfactants in significant amounts, which help water spread uniformly over clothes.

The chemical structure of soap
As you can see, one end (the head) of the soap molecule is hydrophilic; this part has a strong affinity for water molecules (in other words, it loves water). The other end (the tail) of the soap is hydrophobic; this part tries to stay away from water molecules, as it has a strong aversion to it. However, it does love dirt and grime. These two parts of a soap molecule, given that they have a contrasting disposition towards water molecules, is why soap is so effective for washing clothes.
The hydrophobic tail attaches itself to grime and dirt, while the hydrophilic head gets affixed to water molecules. Therefore, when the dirty clothes are put inside a washing machine or swished vigorously by hand, dirt is pulled away from the cloth and washed away in the water, leaving the cloth sparkling clean.

2018-03-24 15:59:58 UTC

Aina Iman

SOAPzzz 💌

intannami01 — 2018-03-24 16:43:21 UTC

1) What is soap ?
Soaps are the sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids.

Fatty acids are organic acid with long carbon chain CnH2n+1COOH, n> 10 . Fatty acid are found naturally as an ester with alcohol glycerol ( alcohol with 3OH). Ester with fatty acid or glycerol is fat or oil.

2) How to prepare soap ?

Ever wonder on how to prepare soap ?

Well here's how we do it :
"SAPHONIFICATION"

► | The process that is used for making soap.

► Involves the hydrolysis process between ester (oil or fat) and concentrated alkali solution
○ concentrated alkaline solution acts as a catalyst
○ Fat (from animals) or oil (vegetable oil) is hydrolysed

► Big ester molecules are break down to fatty acids and glycerol.
○ fat + alkali → fatty acid salt (soap) + glycerol

During SAPONIFICATION
► | Animal fat or vegetables fat is heated with sodium hydroxide.
► | Once the saponification reaction is complete, sodium chloride is added to precipitate the soap.

| ► | Sodium chloride is added to reduce the solubility of soap in water and causes the solid soap form from the liquid soap solution.

| ► | The soap can be separated from the solution by filtration.

ADDITIVES ⚗️
| ► | Colouring and perfumes.

| ► | Optical brighteners as whitening agent.

| ► | Water softeners that used in areas with hard water.

| ► | Abrasives that increase the power of cleansing action.

3) How does soap cleans oILy StAIned on our clothes ? 🚿🌀

Washing up liquid is a kind of soap. Normally, oil and water don't mix, so they separate into two different layers. Soap breaks up the oil into smaller drops, which can mix with the water. It works because soap is made up of molecules with two very different ends. One end of soap molecules love water - they are hydrophilic. The other end of soap molecues hate water - they are hydrophobic.

Hydrophobic ends of soap molecule all attach to the oil. Hydrophilic ends stick out into the water.

TRADITIONAL MEDICINE

2018-03-24 17:15:29 UTC

ILHAM NURSOFEA

1.examples of traditional medicines ,sources and uses

Plant : Ginger

Part of the plant used : Rhizome(horizontalundergroundstem)and leaves

Uses : For treating stomachpain due to wind in thestomach

For supplying heatenergy to keep thebody warm

For preventing fluattack

Plant : Aloe vera

Part of the plant used : Leaves

Uses : For preventing itchyskin

For treating burns(scalding) on the skin

Plant : Ginseng

Part of the plant used : Roots

Uses : As a tonic to improvethe overall health of human beings

For increasing energy,endurance andreducing fatigue

Plant : Garlic

Part of the plant used : Corm

Uses: For preventing fluattack

For reducing highblood pressure

Examples of food labels with additives

2018-03-24 17:55:28 UTC

Aspartame, an additive used as an artificial sweetener.

Traditional Medicine - Aina Arisha

2018-03-24 17:56:46 UTC

Plant : Garlic

Part of the plant used : Corm

Uses: For preventing fluattack

For reducing highblood pressure

Plant : Ginger

Part of the plant used : Rhizome(horizontalundergroundstem)and leaves

Uses : For treating stomachpain due to wind in thestomach

For supplying heatenergy to keep thebody warm

For preventing fluattack

Plant : Aloe vera

Part of the plant used : Leaves

Uses : For preventing itchyskin

For treating burns(scalding) on the skin

Plant : Lemon (lime)

Part of the plant used : Fruits

Uses : For treating boils orabscesses on the skin

For preventing fluattack

For treating skindiseases

Plant : Quinine

Part of the plant used : Bark of Chinchonatree

Uses : For treating malaria

For preventing musclecramps

Plant : Ginseng

Part of the plant used : Roots

Uses : As a tonic to improvethe overall health of human beings

For increasing energy,endurance andreducing fatigue

Plant : Lemon grass
Part of the plant used : Stem/leaves

Uses : Has antibacterial andantifungal properties

For treating cough

Plant : Tongkat Ali

Part of the plant used : Roots

Uses : As a tonic for after a birth and general health

Examples of food labels with additives

2018-03-24 18:07:27 UTC

Monosodium gulatamate or MSG, to enhance the flavour of the food

Discussion regarding food additives

2018-03-24 18:09:44 UTC

a) the rationale of using food additives is that food additives majorly play a big role in preserving food until the food is eaten. Preservatives in particular aid a lot in helping prevent the growth of bacteria on foods, reducing the number of cases of food poisoning. Besides that, in an ever growing world, the need for sustainable food growth increases, therefore more resources will be dedicated to food production. By using additives that help preserve food, it will prevent food wastage which in return reduces the amount of land and water resources needed to produce more food.

b) Food additives such as sodium sulphate can cause allergies in humans, whereas the preservative, sodium nitrite is a potent carcinogen that can cause cancer. Colouring such as tartrazine can cause hyperactivity.

c) If we lived in a world without food additives, food would not last as long as they do now. Food spoilage would be must faster due to spreading of microorganisms and other factors, and food waste will be more common. Therefore, more resources would be devoted to food production.

Food additives help enhance food quality to make them more delicious. Without additives, foods would not taste as strong or sharp as they do now, nor would they be as brightly coloured. They would taste and look natural, instead of being made more appealing by food additives.

However, our food would be much healthier and fresher, and humans will be able to avoid the harmful side effects of food additives, such as the risk of cancer, brain damage and allergies.

Source :
1. http://chemistryteam95.blogspot.my/2012/01/effects-of-food-additives-on-health-and.html
2. https://www.faia.org.uk/food-additives/why-do-we-need-food-additives/
3. https://www.fooducate.com/app#!page=post&id=57A323BF-C26A-097E-4394-A88B882B0AA3

DETERGENT

helysashah23 — 2018-03-25 02:50:20 UTC

1.what is detergent

A detergent is a surfactant or a mixture of surfactants with cleaning properties in dilute solutions.^[1] These substances are usually alkylbenzenesulfonates, a family of compounds that are similar to soap but are more soluble in hard water, because the polar sulfonate (of detergents) is less likely than the polar carboxylate (of soap) to bind to calcium and other ions found in hard water. In most household contexts, the term detergent by itself refers specifically to laundry detergent or dish detergent, as opposed to hand soap or other types of cleaning agents. Detergents are commonly available as powders or concentrated solutions. Detergents, like soaps, work because they are amphiphilic: partly hydrophilic (polar) and partly hydrophobic (non-polar). Their dual nature facilitates the mixture of hydrophobic compounds (like oil and grease) with water. Because air is not hydrophilic, detergents are also foaming agents to varying degrees.

3. the additives and their function
1. Modern detergents used for washing clothes usually contains a few types of
additives to :
a) Increase their cleaning power.

b) Make them attractive and saleable.

2. Only about 20% of the substances in a detergent are cleansing agents (sodium
alkyl sulphate or sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate). The other substances are
additives. The examples of addictives and their functions are described as follows:

3. Builders : Sodium tripolyphosphate (Na5P3O10)

a) Sodium tripolyphospathe is usd to soften hard water. In the presence of

sodium tripolyphosphate, Ca2+

ions and Mg2+ ions are removed.

b) Sodium tripolyphosphate increases the pH value of water. In this way,

muddy dirt can be removed.

4. Whitening / bleaching agents : sodium perborate

a) Bleaches (bleaching agents) remove coloured stains by oxidation process.

When coloured stanis are oxidized, the colour will disappear.

b) The whitening (bleaching) agents commonly used in detergent are sodium

perborate (NaH2BO43H2O). Sodium perborate decomposes in hot water to

release oxygen (an oxidising agent) which is responsible for the whitening

(bleaching) action.

c) Unlike chlorine, oxygen does not bleach the colour of dyes are not

damaging to fabrics. When properly used, the perborate bleaches make

fabrics whiter than chlorine bleaches and the colourful dyes of the fabrics

do not fade when dirty stains are removed.

d) Besides sodium perborate, sodium hypochlorite, (NaCIO) can also be used

as bleaches in detergents. The IUPAC name of sodium hypochlorite is

sodium chlorate (I).

e) Sodium hypochlorite releases chlorine that bleaches with dirty stains.

However, high concentrations of chlorine can be quite damaging to fabrics.

These bleaches do not work well on synthetic fabrics (polyster fabrics),

often causing a yellowing rather than the desire whitening. Also chlorine

causes the dyes on fabrics to fade.

5. Biological enzymes : Amylase, lipase, and protease

a) Protein stains such blood, milk, and tomato sauce cannot be removed by

the ordinary detergents because these types of stains are insoluble in

water.

b) Biological enzymes in detergents can break down fat and protein

molecules in food stains. The fatty acids, glycerol and amino acids

produced are soluble in water and are removed during washing.

6. Brighteners

a) Figure below shows the action of brighteners. The brighteners absorb the

invisible ultra-violet and re-radiate it as blue light.

b) Brighteners make fabrics appear whiter and brighter because the blue light

can hide any yellowing on the fabrics. Blue light added to the yellow light
reflected on old fabrics make them look white.

7. Drying agents ; Sodium sulphate and sodium silicate

Anhydrous sodium sulphate and sodium silicate (Na2S2O3) are used as drying
agents to ensure that the detergent in powdered firm is always in a dry condition.

8. Stabilisers

a) The functions of stabilizers is to prevents the formation of foam.
b) In an automatic washing machine, excessive foam can stop the pump
working. So, washing powders for automatic washing machine are made
using detergents that are good at removing and emulsifying grease, but do
not produced foam.

9. Perfumes

Perfumes are added to make clothes smell fresh and clean.

2.how to make detergent

Traditional Medicines

2018-03-25 03:03:23 UTC

-ALEEYA NATASHA-

Raw Garlic
reverse diabetes, fight inflammation, boost immune system, regulate blood pressure, fight cardiovascular diseases, relieve allergies, fight viral and fungal infections and improve hair loss

Ginseng
to reduce stress, help with weight loss, treat sexual dysfunction, lower blood sugar level and reduce inflammation

Milk Thistle
aid digestive function, increase bile production, boost skin health, lower cholesterol level and detoxify body

Ginkgo Biloba
reduce the risk of Alzheimer's disease and dementia, relieve ADHD symptoms, fight anxiety and depression

Feverfew
for fevers, headaches, toothaches, insect bites and problems with menstruation and labor during childbirth

soap - Alya Dayana

2018-03-25 04:58:48 UTC

Water, the liquid commonly used for cleaning, has a property called surface tension. In the body of the water, each molecule is surrounded and attracted by other water molecules. However, at the surface, those molecules are surrounded by other water molecules only on the water side. A tension is created as the water molecules at the surface are pulled into the body of the water. This tension causes water to bead up on surfaces (glass, fabric), which slows wetting of the surface and inhibits the cleaning process. You can see surface tension at work by placing a drop of water onto a counter top. The drop will hold its shape and will not spread.

In the cleaning process, surface tension must be reduced so water can spread and wet surfaces. Chemicals that are able to do this effectively are called surface active agents, or surfactants. They are said to make water "wetter."

Surfactants perform other important functions in cleaning, such as loosening, emulsifying

(dispersing in water) and holding soil in suspension until it can be rinsed away. Surfactants can also provide alkalinity, which is useful in removing acidic soils.

Surfactants are classified by their ionic (electrical charge) properties in water: anionic (negative charge), nonionic (no charge), cationic (positive charge) and amphoteric (either positive or negative charge).

Soap is an anionic surfactant. Other anionic as well as nonionic surfactants are the main ingredients in today's detergents. Now let's look closer at the chemistry of surfactants.

hunhan135 — 2018-03-25 06:59:10 UTC

1. What is a soup
a substance used with water for washing and cleaning, made of a compound of natural oils or fats with sodium hydroxide or another strong alkali, and typically having perfume and colouring added.

2. How to prepare soap
1.Gather the ingredients. Cold process soap is made from oils, lye and water. When these ingredients are combined at the right temperature, they harden into soap in a process called saponification. The ingredients:

24 ounces of coconut/olive oil
38 ounces of vegetable shortening
12 ounces sodium hydroxide, or lye. (also called caustic soda)
32 ounces spring or distilled water
4 ounces of your favorite essential oil, such as peppermint, lemon, rose or lavender

2.Measure 12 ounces of lye. Make sure that all of your ingredients are exactly the measurement that it is supposed to be, especially on smaller batches. Use the scale to make sure the measurement is exact, and pour the lye into the two-cup measuring cup.
3.Measure 32 ounces of cold water. Use the scale to make sure the measurement is exact, and pour the water into a large, non-aluminum container, such as a stainless steel pot or glass bowl.

4.Add the lye to the water. Place the container of water under your stove's running exhaust fan, or make sure the windows are open and the room is well-ventilated. Add the lye to the water slowly, stirring gently with a spoon until the lye is completely dissolved.

It is very important to add the lye to the water and not the other way around; if you add the water to the lye, the reaction between the two substances is too quick, and may be dangerous.
As you add the lye to the water, it will heat the water and release fumes. Keep your face turned away to avoid inhaling the fumes.
Set the mixture aside. Allow it to cool and let the fumes dissipate.

5.Measure the oils. Use the scale to weigh out 24 ounces of coconut oil, 38 ounces of vegetable shortening, and 24 ounces of olive oil.
6.Combine the oils. Set a large stainless steel pot on the stove on low-medium heat. Add the coconut oil and vegetable shortening and stir frequently until melted. Add the olive oil and stir until all are completely melted and combined, then remove the pot from heat.
7.Measure the temperature of the lye and oils. Use different thermometers for the lye and oils, and continue to monitor their temperatures until the lye reaches 95-98 degrees Fahrenheit (35-36 degrees Celsius) and the oils are at the same or lower temperature.
8.Add the lye to the oils. When the two substances have reached the proper temperatures, add the lye in a slow, steady stream to the oils.

Stir with a wooden or heat-resistent spoon; do not use metal.
You may instead use a stick blender to stir the lye and oils.
Continue to mix for about 10-15 minutes until "tracing" occurs; you'll see your spoon leave a visible trace behind it, like one you'd see when making pudding. If you're using a stick blender, this should occur within about 5 minutes.
If you don't seen tracing within 15 minutes, let the mixture sit for 10-15 minutes before continuing to mix again.

9.Add 4 ounces of essential oil once tracing occurs. Some fragrances and essential oils (cinnamon, for example), will cause soap to set quickly, so be ready to pour the soap into molds as soon as you stir in the essential oil.

3. How does soap clean oily stain on shirt
Surface tension

Water molecules have a tendency to stick together, as opposed to losing their fellow water molecules’ company and sticking to other surfaces. This happens as a result of something known as the ‘surface tension’ of water. Surface tension is the reason why water droplets are spherical in shape, as a sphere is the shape that minimizes surface tension among water molecules.
This is where surfactants enter the picture. Surfactants are substances that help lower the surface tension of water molecules, thus ‘persuading’ them to wet things more uniformly.

Soap contain surfactants in significant amounts, which help water spread uniformly over clothes.

The chemical structure of soap

Chemical structure of a soap

How soaps separate dirt from cloth (Image Source: Wikipedia)

The hydrophobic tail attaches itself to grime and dirt, while the hydrophilic head gets affixed to water molecules. Therefore, when the dirty clothes are put inside a washing machine or swished vigorously by hand, dirt is pulled away from the cloth and washed away in the water, leaving the cloth sparkling clean.
References : https://www.scienceabc.com/pure-sciences/how-soap-detergent-work-saponification-hydrophobic-hydrophilic-dirty.html

soap

2018-03-26 07:42:41 UTC

1. what is soap?
a substance used with water for washing and cleaning, made of a compound of natural oils or fats with sodium hydroxide or another strong alkali, and typically having perfume and colouring added.

2. how to prepare soap?
To make cold process soap, you heat the oils in yoursoap pot until they're approximately 100 degrees. Slowly add the lye-water mixture and blend the soapuntil it thickens to “trace”. After the mixture reaches trace, you add your fragrance, color, and additives and pour it into the mold.

3. how does soap clean oily stains on shirts?
Water molecules have a tendency to stick together, as opposed to losing their fellow water molecules’ company and sticking to other surfaces. This happens as a result of something known as the ‘surface tension’ of water. Surface tension is the reason why water droplets are spherical in shape, as a sphere is the shape that minimizes surface tension among water molecules.This is where surfactants enter the picture. Surfactants are substances that help lower the surface tension of water molecules, thus ‘persuading’ them to wet things more uniformly.

Now, can you guess where you might find a decent amount of surfactants?

Soaps, of course! Soaps (which are a type of detergent) contain surfactants in significant amounts, which help water spread uniformly over clothes. However, this is only one thing about soaps that help clean clothes;one end (the head) of the soap molecule is hydrophilic; this part has a strong affinity for water molecules (in other words, it loves water). The other end (the tail) of the soap is hydrophobic; this part tries to stay away from water molecules, as it has a strong aversion to it. However, it does love dirt and grime. These two parts of a soap molecule, given that they have a contrasting disposition towards water molecules, is why soap is so effective for washing clothes.The hydrophobic tail attaches itself to grime and dirt, while the hydrophilic head gets affixed to water molecules. Therefore, when the dirty clothes are put inside a washing machine or swished vigorously by hand, dirt is pulled away from the cloth and washed away in the water, leaving the cloth sparkling clean.

It turns out that a mixed relationship with water, in some cases, can be a good thing. It’s more beneficial for some, particularly the entire washing machine and detergent industries, which cash in big on soap’s loving-and-loathing attitude towards water!

sabarina hasbi

2018-03-27 03:41:13 UTC

what is soap
Soaps are water-soluble sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids. Soaps are made from fats and oils, or their fatty acids, by treating them chemically with a strong alkali.

siti aishah

2018-03-27 03:44:20 UTC

sabarina hasbi

2018-03-27 03:51:48 UTC

how to prepare soap