Microprocessor are the indispensable part of our day to day machines we come across.Be it an elevator,gasoline pump,computer server,digital kiosk,surveillance systems etc. The transport industry also heavily depends on the information provided by the microprocessor

Mediical Field

Many Medical Devices use microprocessors such as insulin pump,diabetes checker.The microprocessors perform various function such as bio sensors,storing measurements, and analysing results.Microprocessors , in present age have transformed into a major part of the defense industry and its application are growing with time giving a whole new dimension to Military Combat.

Microprocessors are heavily used in Communication industry for various puposes like sattelite communication

Since the birth of microprocessors in 1971, the IC industry has successfully maintained an incredibly rapid increase in performance. Recently this has given rise to developments in two main directions: 1) to utilize instruction level parallelism (ILP) more aggressively by means of more powerful optimizing compilers, and innovative techniques. 2) to also make use of parallelism at a higher-than-instruction (i.e., thread) level. Performance may be increased basically either by raising the clock frequency or by increasing the efficiency of the microarchitecture. The major outbreak in micro-architectural developments was the introduction of superscalar processorsin our computers which is aCPUthat implements a form ofparallelismcalledinstruction-level parallelismwithin a single processor. It therefore allows faster CPUthroughput(the number of instructions that can be executed in a unit of time) than would otherwise be possible at a givenclock rate. The types of parallelism that are used are namely Temporal, Issue and Instrainstruction level Parallelism which are named in a chronological sequence.

At .intro. the heart of all personal computers and mostworkstationssits a microprocessor. Microprocessors also control the logic of almost alldigitaldevices, from clock radios to fuel-injectionsystemsfor automobiles.Their performance has grown 1,000-fold over the past 20 years, driven by transistor speed and energy scaling, as well as by micro-architecture advances that exploited the transistor density gains from Moore’s Law. Our aim here is to reflect and project the macro trends shaping the evolution of microprocessors and sketch in broad strokes where processor design is going.Microprocessor technology has delivered three-orders-of-magnitude performance improvement over the past two decades. To appropriately scale aggregate bandwidths of nextgeneration CPU interfaces while keeping the aforementioned factors of latency, form factor, power and cost in check, it will be essential to optimize the I/O system at the platform level and not focus solely on piecemeal architecture, circuit or interconnect solutions.Such a forthright view, solidly grounded, best supports our goals for this article.

Our aim here is to reflect and project the macro trends shaping the future of microprocessors and sketch in broad strokes where processor design is going. We enumerate key research challenges and suggest promising research directions. Since dramatic changes are coming, we also seek to inspire the research community to invent new ideas and solutions address how to sustain computing’s exponential improvement.

design and its evolution

2)An article from Britannica on ICs.

http://www.britannica.com/technology/integrated-circuit

3)A talk by Dr. William Haley 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l1ImS3gbg08&feature=youtu.be

4)MIT Lectures on Electronics Engineering and Computer Science from ocw.mit.edu

5)video on Impact of ICs by BBC

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LNVcj5A6yDE

6) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MckeAmnDeTk&feature=youtu.be

7) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qcta3RStYSM&feature=youtu.be

8)A Reference Material on Parallelism in Microprocessors by Dottorato di Ricerca in Informatica,Universita Di Torino,Italy

)Product Insights from www.intel.in, www.nvidia.com ,www.amd.com .

Microprocessors ,in the present age, have transformed into an indispensable part of the Defense Industry and its applications are growing in numbers giving a whole new dimension to the Military Combats.

Suggestion:

The Artificial intelligence ,which is nothing but using several algorithms on this piece of silicon, should be the present age's primary area of concern whose magnificence and accuracy can be more effectively harnessed by the different Defense Institutions of the world.

2)Algorithm;Procedure on Formula for solving problem .

3). Cache Memory:smaller,faster memory to reduce avg. time to access data.

4)PLD: Programmable logic Device ,used to build digital circuits.

Also the best use of microprocessor is in medical science.

Connection between the medical science and microprocessor can be seen everywhere for example it is used in MRI Scanning CT scanning etc .

For these applications, designers often select a microprocessor with a rich instruction set and proven track record, ensuring a reliable operation and maximizing the investment in code generation can be leveraged in the next generation medical products. The increasing use of microprocessors in external medical devices poses special analytical challenges. Programmable pacemakers, long-term portable ECG recorders, and ECG arrhythmia detection monitors, for example, contain cardiac arrhythmia detection software. Examination of such devices is difficult, especially because failures are rare and transient.

Machinery such as blood sugar detector , CT scan, MRI Scanning, etc

2) David A. Patterson : Microprocessor in 2020 ( Journal Sept 1995)

3) https://youtu.be/FPtDc2qvXeQ

1)ILP- Instruction Level Parallelism

2)IPII-Instruction per Issue Interval

3)CPII-Cycles per Issue Interval

4)IPC-Instructions Per Cycle

5)SIMD-Single Instruction Multiple Data

6)VLIW-Very Long

As discussed in the journal Microprocessors — single -chip computers—are the building blocks of the information world. Their performance has grown 1,000-fold over the past 20 years but in the next two decades, diminishing transistor-speed scaling and practical energy limits create new challenges for continued performance scaling .

First generation (1934-1954) computers worked with vacuum tunes as the main hardware. It's Design was bulky, slow and hard to maintain since it operated on mechanical switches powered by electromagnetic. They used filaments to turn on or off and could burn out very easily. Only large organizations such as the US Military could afford such bulky devices. SecondGenerationcomputers(1954-1959) involved use of transistors which were essentially switches that turned on or off based on potential difference between junctions. This ability was utilised in generating logic for computers. They reduced a lot in size and grew more efficient. A breakthrough occurred in 1959 in terms of computer hardware when Jack Kilby contributed to development of Third Generation Computers (1959-1971) by assembling multiple transistors and connecting them on a single silicon chip. Over time transistor size was further reduced and the hardware became to be known as an "Integrated Circuit". Various computing electronics companies like Intel, IBM and Fairchild researched on its design and developed transistors which could practically be "written" on silicon wafers. They could be made by using thinner lines of semiconducting materials. This lead to formation of Microprocessors (1971 - present) which could implement logic and carry complex calculations equivalent to millions of transistors per second. This could be possible since all necessary components were embedded within the Silicon chip. It reduced power consumption, increased power efficiency and made computers compact the level they are today. Over the years they have continued to improve and shrunk in size due to greater no.of transistors due to shrinking line size on chips from few millimeters to microns. Present day microprocessors have greater clockspeed, can handle, multiple tasks at once, higher cache size and are therefore much faster.

SSI-Small scale integration

IC-Integrated circuit

2." The computer society",Time,feb.20,1978

3. J.B. Peatman , Microcomputer-Based Design.New York.McGraw - Hilll,1977

4. G.Moore,"VLSI:Some Fundamental Challenges," IEEE Spectrum,Apr. 1979

5.Electronics,May 10,p.90,1979

"In about 10 years or so, we will see the collapse of Moore's Law," Kaku said. "In fact, we already see a slowing down of Moore's Law. Computing power simply cannot maintain its rapid exponential rise using standard silicon technology."

The prediction was made by Intel co-founder Gordon Moore in 1965. It holds that the number of transistors on a chip doubles about every two years and can be done inexpensively.

Kaku, like so many scientists before him, said recently the two main problems that will derail Moore's Law are heat and leakage. "That's the reason why the age of silicon will eventually come to a close," he said.

This is far from the first prediction that Moore's Law is failing.

2)Microprocessor Architecture Program ;Ramesh S (publisher:Prentice Hall 1988)

4)History of Microprocessors :Beatrice Inc. (Journal;Michael R Betker ,John S Fernando,Shaun P Whalen

5)Wiley online library :History of Microprocessors

onlinelibrarywiley. com

6)http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iSKGVncs_ZQ

7) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4qP0ox5F-6I

Bottlenecks can also affect the network performance by hindering the transmission process of information across the networks.