Economic controls- rationed goods, restricted building coasts.

Information control- controlling media and what they are allowed to publish.

Expansion of powers- commonwealth governments powers, including taking over functions previous help by the state.

Control banks and shipping

Increased taxation on high income

Restrict sporting events and non-essential travel

As Australian men enlisted for overseas service, severe labour shortages emerged. To address this, the government established formal women's auxiliary arms for each of the armed services, allowing women to contribute directly to the military while releasing men for combat duties. Over 66,000 women enlisted in these services, representing nearly 7% of the one million Australians who served in WWII.

• Australian Women's Army Service (AWAS):

  • Formed in August 1941, the AWAS became the largest of the women's services, with over 24,000 womenenlisting.

  • Roles included: clerks, typists, drivers (of various vehicles, including trucks and even Bren Gun Carriers), cooks, signallers, intelligence staff, and provosts.

  • Significantly, AWAS members also manned searchlights, coastal defence, and anti-aircraft batteries (working alongside the Royal Australian Artillery), performing all duties except the direct loading and firing of guns.

  • In 1944, a small contingent of approximately 385 AWAS members were permitted to serve overseas in New Guinea, making them the only non-medical women's service to deploy internationally during the war.

• Women's Auxiliary Australian Air Force (WAAAF):

  • Established in March 1941, the WAAAF was the first and largest of the women's services at its inception, with almost 27,000 women serving by 1945.

  • They worked in over 70 different occupations, including: wireless telegraphists, radar operators, meteorologists, aircraft maintenance (mechanics, fitters, fabric workers, instrument makers), electricians, armament workers, and various clerical and administrative roles.

  • The WAAAF played a crucial role in supporting RAAF operations across Australia.

• Women's Royal Australian Naval Service (WRANS):

  • Formed in April 1941 (though formally established in 1942), over 3,000 women served in the WRANS.

  • Their duties included: telegraphists, coders, clerks, drivers, education officers, mechanics, harbour messengers, cooks, sickberth attendants, and working in intelligence and cryptanalysis.

  • WRANS were not permitted to serve at sea but filled a wide range of vital shore-based positions.

• Nursing Services: Australian nurses continued their traditional, yet incredibly dangerous, role:

  • Australian Army Nursing Service (AANS): Nearly 3,500 AANS sisters served in Australian General Hospitals and Casualty Clearing Stations across all Australian theatres. They faced high casualty rates, with 72 nurses dying from torpedoed ships or as prisoners of war.

  • Royal Australian Air Force Nursing Service (RAAFNS) and Royal Australian Navy Nursing Service (RANNS) also provided essential medical care.

• Australian Army Medical Women's Service (AAMWS): Formed in December 1942, these women (many from the Red Cross Voluntary Aid Detachment) served as nursing aides in Australia and overseas.

Women on the Home Front

Beyond the uniformed services, hundreds of thousands of Australian women were crucial to the war effort on the home front, filling roles previously dominated by men and keeping the economy functioning.

• Industrial Workforce: Women stepped into factories, munitions plants, and other industries, producing vital war materials. They worked in:

  • Munitions factories: Producing ammunition, weapons, and other military supplies.

  • Aircraft assembly and maintenance: A significant number worked in the growing Australian aircraft industry.

  • Shipyards, transport, and other essential services.

  • Despite their essential contributions, women often earned significantly less than men for the same work (typically 60-90% of male wages).

• Australian Women's Land Army (AWLA):

  • Formed in July 1942 to address severe labour shortages in the agricultural sector, the AWLA attracted over 3,000 members.

  • "Land Girls" performed demanding farm work, including: growing fruit and vegetables, raising livestock, milking cows, driving tractors, harvesting crops, and undertaking general farm labour. Their work was vital for feeding both the Australian population and Allied forces.

• Volunteer and Emergency Services: Many women volunteered their time and efforts through various organizations:

  • Red Cross and Country Women's Association (CWA): Provided comfort parcels for troops, ran fundraising drives, and offered support to families.

  • Women's National Emergency Legion: Provided training in first aid, home nursing, and emergency response.

  • They actively participated in air raid drills and civil defence initiatives.

Watched and Warned and Died that We Might Live

[The epitaph on the Australian Coastwatchers Memorial at Madang]

The first coastwatching organisation was established in 1919 by Captain J G Clare, RAN, who believed there was a need to develop a network of observers to monitor the islands to Australia's north. The Coastwatchers on the northern and north-western coasts of Australia were usually cattle-station managers or missionaries and in Papua and New Guinea, usually plantation mangers who had lived in the islands for some years and so had local contacts and local knowledge. By the mid-1920s their area included the Bismarck Archipelago.

In 1935, Commander R B M Long, Director of Naval Intelligence (DNI) in Melbourne worked to close the gaps in the coastwatching service. He sent Eric Feldt – a retired Royal Australian Naval officer with many years' experience of the civil service in New Guinea – to be in charge of intelligence there. Feldt, himself an Islander, knew the other islanders, the planters and the government officials and was trusted by them.

With Japan's entry into the war this island screen became the front-line. The Coastwatchers communicated by radio through existing radio stations or by teleradios that had been loaned by the Naval Board. They were given some instruction and a code with which to make their reports on any hostile movements and to report any item of intelligence value. It was a lonely and precarious existence.

After the capture, torture and murder of Percy Good, an elderly copra planter on Buka Island, off Bougainville, all civilians were enlisted into the RAN in the belief that their combatant status would protect them if they were captured by the enemy.

In 1942 when General MacArthur assumed supreme command of the South West Pacific Area it was decided that the Coastwatchers should become part of the Allied Intelligence Bureau under the direct command of General Headquarters (GHQ). By then there were over a hundred teleradios all linked to their own centre, either Port Moresby, Rabaul, Tulagi or Vila and all using a special, rarely used frequency to avoid attracting attention.

The Coastwatchers were supported by all three services. Aircraft dropped their supplies and submarines and PT boats landed them and removed them. The assistance and loyalty of the local population was essential: they performed a vital role in guerrilla operations and intelligence gathering.

A small Australian army signals unit, the New Guinea Air Warning Wireless Company (NGAWW), also existed as a single entity between February 1942 and 1945. In October 1942, the unit was officially renamed 'New Guinea Air Warning Wireless (Independent) Company' as part of New Guinea Force and later, as part of the Corps of Signals in October 1943. These Army 'spotters' served in the valleys, highlands and around the coastline of New Guinea and nearby islands as signallers. All members of the unit were volunteers and their unit colour patch was a double diamond, being the 'independent' unit (later 'commando') insignia. By 1943-1944, the NGAWW had 75 outposts in New Guinea and surrounding islands in the South-West Pacific Theatre of Operations. The unit was disbanded in 1945 and its members have been commemorated with a plaque in the grounds of the Australian War Memorial in Canberra.

More than 600 Coastwatchers served in Australia, New Guinea and the Pacific Islands during World War II. They included RAAF, AIF, RAN, 1 WRAN, (Women's Royal Australian Naval Officer) US Marines and US Army personnel, members of the British Solomon Islands Protectorate Defence Force and 13 civilians. The thirty eight Coastwatchers who died are not always identifiable on the Roll of Honour at the Australian War Memorial since their names are listed with their operational units and not as Coastwatchers.

Key features of the Volunteer Defence Corps:

- Origins and Formation: The VDC was modeled after similar organizations in other countries, such as Britain’s Home Guard. It was officially established by the Australian government as a home defense force.

- Composition: The corps mainly consisted of men aged 17 to 65 who were either ineligible for military service or chose to volunteer for home defense. Many members were veterans of previous wars or those with military experience.

- Roles and Responsibilities: The VDC performed local defense duties, including guarding vital installations, assisting with border security, maintaining order, and supporting police and military units. They trained in basic military skills such as drill, marksmanship, and first aid.

- Structure: The corps was organized into units at the local level, often based on communities or regions, functioning as a militia-like reserve force.

- Dissolution: The VDC was disbanded after the war ended in 1945, as the threat of invasion diminished and military services were reorganized.

Significance:

The Volunteer Defence Corps played a vital role in Australia’s home front during WWII, providing a sense of community defense and supplementing the regular military forces. Their presence helped bolster morale and preparedness during a tense period when Australia faced the threat of Japanese invasion in the Pacific.

While some P.O.W’s were treated relatively fairly, many insured forced labour, starvation and faced brutal conditions. Their was `roughly 30,000 prisoners of war from 1940-1945 and known to be over 1000 camps were they were held.