Dyslexia is a complex learning disability that exists on a continuum, ranging from mild to severe. Understanding its characteristics can help in early identification and intervention. Below are key symptoms and indicators categorized by age group.

Key Characteristics of Dyslexia

1. Inability to Sound Out New Words: Individuals often struggle to decode unfamiliar words, which can be assessed using nonwords. Letter-sound knowledge is a precursor to this skill and can be evaluated as early as age three.

2. Limited Sight-Word Vocabulary: Difficulty in automatically recognizing common words can hinder reading fluency and comprehension. Letter-name knowledge can also be assessed early.

3. Listening Comprehension Exceeds Reading Comprehension: Many individuals find it easier to understand spoken material than written text. This discrepancy can indicate the severity of decoding issues.

4. Inadequate Response to Effective Instruction: Poor reading may not solely be due to a lack of instruction; it’s essential to document responses to effective teaching strategies.

Signs of Dyslexia by Age Group

Preschool-Age Children

- Delay in speech or unclear articulation

- Difficulty recognizing their name in print

- Challenges with nursery rhymes and rhyming patterns

- Lack of interest in books

- Trouble understanding directionality in reading

Kindergarten Through First Grade

- Inability to create rhymes or manipulate sounds in words

- Difficulty separating compound words and individual sounds

- Confusion over letters and sounds

- Reluctance to read and reliance on pictures for comprehension

Second Grade Through Third Grade

- Omission of grammatical endings in reading and writing

- Avoidance of reading aloud

- Trouble with common high-frequency words and spelling

- Frequent reading errors and reliance on context for guessing

Fourth Grade Through Eighth Grade

- History of poor reading skills and error patterns

- Difficulty with multisyllabic words and reading comprehension

- Struggles with vocabulary and spelling

- Avoidance of reading for pleasure and challenges with written tasks

High School Through College

- Persistent reading and spelling difficulties

- Slow reading pace and avoidance of reading aloud

- Difficulty with notetaking and imprecise language in speech

Language Components

The concept of language can be understood through the model provided by Bloom and Lahey, which identifies three major components:

1. Form: This includes phonology (sound system), morphology (structure of words), and syntax (sentence structure).

2. Content: This refers to semantics, which is the meaning of words and sentences.

3. Use: This encompasses pragmatics, which involves the functional and socially appropriate use of language.

Characteristics of Dyslexia

- Phonological Processing Deficits: Most individuals with dyslexia exhibit a core deficit in phonological processing, which includes phonological memory, phonological awareness, and rapid naming.

- Single-Word Decoding Issues: Dyslexia primarily affects the ability to decode words accurately and fluently, which is linked to weaknesses in phonological processing.

- Spelling Difficulties: Spelling is almost always impacted in individuals with dyslexia.

Language Disorders

According to the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, a language disorder is an impairment in the comprehension and/or use of spoken, written, or other symbol systems. Dyslexia is a subset of language disorders that specifically affects reading and writing abilities.

The Simple View of Reading

This model posits that reading comprehension relies on both efficient word recognition and language comprehension. Dyslexia is distinguished from other reading disabilities, such as specific reading comprehension deficits, which involve accurate word identification but poor comprehension.

Phonological Awareness

Phonological awareness is crucial for learning to read and spell. It involves recognizing and manipulating the sound structure of language, which includes:

- Phonemic Awareness: The ability to manipulate individual sounds (phonemes) within words.

- Phonological Memory: The ability to hold phonological information in working memory, which is essential for decoding unfamiliar words.

- Rapid Naming: The ability to quickly name letters, numbers, or objects, which is linked to efficient word identification.

Impact of Speech and Language Deficits

Students with dyslexia may have a history of delayed speech or language development, which can manifest as articulation difficulties or challenges in receptive and expressive language skills. Early oral language problems often lead to later reading and writing difficulties, highlighting the reciprocal relationship between spoken and written language development.

Evidence Based Instruction:

• Activities, strategies, or interventions that have statistically proven effects on improving students performance

• Appropriate and intensive strategies can be used in early grades to continue students on the track to success in reading

• Teachers who are well-trained in these effective strategies can increase students reading skills

Structured Literacy:

Term for reading instruction identified by International Dyslexia Association.

• Simultaneous Multisensory:

  • Every language task has at least two sensory pathways

  • Ex: Copying (for writing) - Visual to Kinesthetic-Motor

  • Simultaneous Multisensory strategies strengthen connections and memory

Direct and Explicit:

• All concepts in structured literacy are taught directly with constant interactions between students and teacher

• Skills are practiced with teacher feedback with the goal of independence

Structured:

• Instructions are step-by-step

• Teachers must individualize instruction and continue assessments using formal and informal tools

Sequential and Cumulative:

• Concepts and Skills are presented in a way that follows logical order of language

• Instruction is scaffolded

• New concepts taught are always related to past concepts

What is Taught:

• Structure of language at all levels

• Speech sound system (Phonology)

• Writing system (Orthology)

• Meaningful parts of words (Morphology)

• Sentence structure (Syntax)

• Meaning relationships between words, phrases, sentences (Semantics)

Who Can Support Students with Dyslexia:

• General education teachers

• Credentialed reading specialists

• Speech-language pathologists

• Special education teachers

• Assistive technology specialists with expertise in learning disabilities

Accommodations:

• Reducing homework, allowing typewritten or spoken work, extending time to complete assignment

• For math, allowing use of a calculator, breaking down steps

• Give students access to audiobooks, extra time, allowing student to volunteer to read out loud rather than call on them

• Reduce number of words on spelling lists, give access to spell-check, not deducting points for spelling errors

• Extra time during testing, allowing oral answers, quiet testing area

• For writing, minimize need of copying, offer speech to text software, graphic organizers