Natural Disasters by Leueen Burns

What are landslides and what causes them?

l_burns2678 — 2018-02-22 11:13:08 UTC

A landslide is the movement of a mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope. Landslides are a type of ‘mass wasting’, which denotes any down slope movement of soil and rock under the direct influence of gravity (USGS, 2018).

Landslides are mostly considered natural occurring disasters, however landslides are also considered to be caused by other kinds of ‘disasters’, those disasters include hurricanes, monsoons, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions (Woods and Woods, 2010).

FLOODING DEFINITION

m_prudames4864 — 2018-02-22 11:14:47 UTC

"Flooding is a temporary overflowing of water onto land that is normally dry."
(Ready Gov, 2018)

CAUSES
- Heavy rain
- Snow melt
- Coastal storms
- Storm surge
- Blocked waterway with debris and / or ice
- Overflow of levees / dams / waste water systems
(Ready Gov, 2018)

YORK FLOODING

m_prudames4864 — 2018-02-22 11:18:21 UTC

1990

m_prudames4864 — 2018-02-22 11:19:12 UTC

(York Evening Press Photographer, 1990)

NEPAL'S GORKHA EARTHQUAKE 2015 - Recent phenomenon of disastrous landslides

l_burns2678 — 2018-02-22 11:20:03 UTC

One phenomenon of disastrous landslides was Nepal’s Gorkha earthquake, which struck Central Nepal on 25^th April 2015, with the moment magnitude of the earthquake at 7.8 magnitudes. The severity of the earthquake triggered SEVERAL landslides.

2000

m_prudames4864 — 2018-02-22 11:21:14 UTC

(Hatton, 2000)

2007

m_prudames4864 — 2018-02-22 11:23:28 UTC

(Prudames, 2007)

HURRICANES

kirsty_lane1997 — 2018-02-22 11:24:17 UTC

2007

m_prudames4864 — 2018-02-22 11:25:02 UTC

(Prudames, 2007)

EARTHQUAKES

r_ashton7488 — 2018-02-22 11:25:48 UTC

"A SHAKING OF THE GROUND CAUSED BY MOVEMENT OF THE EARTH'S CRUST" (Collins, 2018).

When do They Form?

kirsty_lane1997 — 2018-02-22 11:26:07 UTC

June - November (Cohen & Stone, 2017).
Image - eSchooltoday (2017)

How do They Form?

kirsty_lane1997 — 2018-02-22 11:27:26 UTC

· Sea temperatures of at least 27°C.

· Converging winds near the ocean surface forcing air to rise and form storm clouds.

· Sufficient distance from the equator for a spin, located between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.

Crown (2015)

2015

m_prudames4864 — 2018-02-22 11:27:30 UTC

(York Press Photographer, 2015)

CASE STUDY

r_ashton7488 — 2018-02-22 11:28:02 UTC

- Earthquake in Bam, Iran
- 26 December 2003
- 5:26 am local time/Friday
- 6.6 on the Richter Scale

IMMEDIATE EFFECTS

l_burns2678 — 2018-02-22 11:29:03 UTC

The damage statistics stand at a total number of 8,962 people killed and 22,302 people injured.

2015

m_prudames4864 — 2018-02-22 11:29:18 UTC

(York Press Photographer, 2015)

IMPACTS

r_ashton7488 — 2018-02-22 11:29:47 UTC

- Over 90% of the city destroyed;
- More than 30,000 people were killed and over 25,000 injured; and
- Economic losses were estimated at the value of USD 1.5 billion

(Nakamura, et al., 2005 & Nekoei-Moghadam, et al., 2016 & Berberian, 2005).

LANGTANG, NEPAL 2015 CATASTROPHIC LANDSLIDE

l_burns2678 — 2018-02-22 11:30:30 UTC

The worst hit areas of the induced landslides from Gorkha was entire settlements including popular tourist destinations like Langtang

York to Elvington

m_prudames4864 — 2018-02-22 11:32:24 UTC

(Google Maps, 2017)

2015

m_prudames4864 — 2018-02-22 11:35:03 UTC

(York Press Photographer, 2015)

PREPARATION

r_ashton7488 — 2018-02-22 11:35:56 UTC

"A coherent and modified plan was a fundamental weakness to the damage caused by the earthquake" (Nekoei-Moghadam, et al., 2016).

How are they Categorised?

kirsty_lane1997 — 2018-02-22 11:36:20 UTC

1-5 using Saffir - Simpson Hurricane Scale which is a standardised form of measurement (Porch, n.d.).
Image - eSchooltoday (2017)

RESPONSE

r_ashton7488 — 2018-02-22 11:39:01 UTC

- Search and rescue measures were not in place;
- Earthquake resistant shelters were lacking;
- It took on average 7 - 14 hours of those injured to be transported to hospitals;
- Effective air-transport for casualties were not settled until the second day after the earthquake

(Sadeghi-Bazargani, et al., 2015 & Motamedi, et al., 2009).

l_burns2678 — 2018-02-22 11:39:14 UTC

Why does York flood?

m_prudames4864 — 2018-02-22 11:40:23 UTC

(The Location of Moor Monkton, 2015)

RECOVERY

r_ashton7488 — 2018-02-22 11:42:28 UTC

- The President of Bam ordered the formation of the "Bam Reconstruction Headquarters"
(Ghafory-Ashtiany & Hosseini, 2008).

Langtang

l_burns2678 — 2018-02-22 11:42:58 UTC

The Langtang trek was the third most popular route in Nepal

Langtang

l_burns2678 — 2018-02-22 11:45:36 UTC

before and after

TYPOLOGIES

m_prudames4864 — 2018-02-22 11:45:51 UTC

- Coastal (surge flood)
- Fluvial (river flood)
- Over-bank
- Flash
- Pluvial (surface flood)
(Maddox, 2014)

Duration

kirsty_lane1997 — 2018-02-22 11:48:06 UTC

A Hurricanes life-cycle can differ from several hours to 31 days (Hurricanescience, 2015).

GENERAL FLOOD PREVENTION

m_prudames4864 — 2018-02-22 11:50:52 UTC

- Flood warning systems
- Modify homes and businesses
- Construct buildings above ground levels
- Tackle climate change
- Increase spending on flood defences
- Plant trees strategically
- Restore rivers to their natural courses
- Introduce water storage areas
- Improve soil conditions
- More flood barriers
(Grant, 2015)

RESPONSE STAKEHOLDERS

r_ashton7488 — 2018-02-22 11:51:12 UTC

- The Iran Red Crescent Society
- The British Red Cross

- Distributed more than 50,000 tents as emergency shelters (Ghafory-Ashtiany & Hosseini, 2008).

- Ran a field hospital staffed by Red Cross and Red Crescent doctors and nurses (British Red Cross, n.d.)

IMMEDIATE RESPONSE TO "GORKHA" AND ITS INDUCED LANDSLIDES

l_burns2678 — 2018-02-22 11:51:18 UTC

The Nepalese government made an international appeal within hours and released 500 million rupees for relief.

Frequency

kirsty_lane1997 — 2018-02-22 11:52:41 UTC

Very per Hurricane Season, there is no trend (Berg, 2013).
Image - Loesche (2017)

FLOOD MONITORING

m_prudames4864 — 2018-02-22 11:53:13 UTC

IOWA FLOOD CENTRE
- Stream stage sensors
- Monitor river height
- Transmit data to Iowa Flood Information System
- Data is publicly available
(Iowa Flood Center, 2018)

A SCALE USED TO RECORD FLOODING

m_prudames4864 — 2018-02-22 11:56:28 UTC

ALASKA NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE
- Bank-full stage
- Action stage
- Flood stage
- Minor flooding
- Moderate flooding
- Major flooding
(National Weather Service, 2018)

Speed of Onset

kirsty_lane1997 — 2018-02-22 11:56:51 UTC

Time taken for a thunderstorm to for a hurricane can vary (Berg, 2013).

Was Nepal prepared?

l_burns2678 — 2018-02-22 11:59:17 UTC

No. Although huge amount of funds has been invested by the government for disaster management, "Gorkha" was a disastrous event that overwhelming effected the response of not only the community but the whole country/countries (MoHA, 2015).

FLOOD WARNINGS

m_prudames4864 — 2018-02-22 11:59:41 UTC

- UK government website
- 24-hour flood-line
- View your property's long-term risk of flooding
- View the 5-day flood risk
- Sign up for flood warnings
(GOV.UK, 2018)

Case Study: Hurricane Katrina

kirsty_lane1997 — 2018-02-22 12:00:37 UTC

Category 5 Hurricane - Category 3 when it hit landfall.

OTHER ISSUES

r_ashton7488 — 2018-02-22 12:01:10 UTC

- Population of the city;
- Debris removal planning;
- Identifying areas that needed repairing or rebuilding; and
- Planning the transition from emergency sheltering to permanent housing
(Ghafory-Ashtiany & Hosseini, 2008).

LESSONS TO BE LEARNED

r_ashton7488 — 2018-02-22 12:03:43 UTC

- Following the earthquake, the "Disaster Management Organisation" was established by the government; and
- Education, training for the general community and exercise drills have been implemented to prepare for future disasters in Iran (Motamedi, et al., 2009).

Duration

kirsty_lane1997 — 2018-02-22 12:03:47 UTC

23rd - 31st August 2005 (Service, 2016)

2015 TOURISM CASE STUDY IMPACTS

m_prudames4864 — 2018-02-22 12:05:07 UTC

- Hotel room occupancy 16% lower than previous year, at 60%
- City centre footfall was 0.4% lower
- Visit York Information Centre had less customers: 11% lower
- Visitor attractions – 18% less visits
- Pre-bookings decreased by 39%
- 14% fewer conference and events enquiries

(Visit York, 2016)

r_ashton7488 — 2018-02-22 12:08:38 UTC

"Lessons to be learned" is an essential part of risk reduction and one reason as to why disasters still occur" (Nekoei-Moghadam, et al., 2016).

Wildfires - What are they?

l_tucker2728 — 2018-02-22 12:10:13 UTC

Speed of Onset

kirsty_lane1997 — 2018-02-22 12:10:56 UTC

Image - Service (2016).

How are they measured?

l_tucker2728 — 2018-02-22 12:12:07 UTC

ULTIMATE RESOLUTION

l_burns2678 — 2018-02-22 12:14:47 UTC

in 2016, the Government of Nepal just established the Landslide Study and Management Division

Vulnerability

kirsty_lane1997 — 2018-02-22 12:15:09 UTC

The geographical location (Humid Sub-Tropical/Tropical climate) makes the risk of Hurricanes more likely

How are they ranked?

l_tucker2728 — 2018-02-22 12:15:34 UTC

E1= Not likely to be exposed
E2= Not likely to be exposed but depends on external variables
E3= likely to be exposed but depends on external variables
E4= highly likely to be exposed

TSUNAMIS

r_ashton7488 — 2018-02-22 12:15:39 UTC

"GIANT WAVES WHICH ARE CAUSED BY EARTHQUAKES" (National Ocean Service, 2017).

CASE STUDY

r_ashton7488 — 2018-02-22 12:18:44 UTC

- Tsunami on the coast of the Indian Ocean
- 26 December 2004
- 7:58 am local time
- Over 10 countries affected
- Earthquake caused the tsunami which measured 9.1 on the Richter Scale

Faulkner (2001)

kirsty_lane1997 — 2018-02-22 12:18:55 UTC

Pre-event phase
- Warnings from the media and scientists that the “big one” would eventually hit the city (Kates, et al., 2006).
- A major disaster management exercise which was held 12 months prior to Hurricane Katrina hitting (Cooperation, 2006).

Prodromal state (warning)
- The National Weather Services issued warnings which led to Mississippi and Louisiana being placed under States of Emergency, 3 days before landfall (Moynihan, 2009).
- It was not until one day before that the Major of New Orleans ordered a mandatory evacuation – 90% of residents departed (Moynihan, 2009).
- Due to the indecision and ineffective mobilisation by the State Officials, the evacuation plans were criticised for being “poorly planned and coordinated” (Cooperation, 2006).

Emergency phase
- Rescue efforts from volunteers, residents, army and other destinations governments
- Displacement of residents led to trauma and crime (Cooperation, 2006).
- Kates, et al (2006) suggests that the emergency period lasted 6 weeks, noting that the endpoint was the “dewatering” of the city. “The emergency period appears to be longer in duration than any other of the studied disasters and can be readily explained by the evident failures in the initial evacuation and response” (Kates, et al., 2006).

Immediate/long term recovery
Immediate;

- Largest deployment of military personnel on US soil was undertaken since the American Civil War and the National Guard’s deployment of 50,000 troops was the largest in US history (Moynihan, 2009).
- Residents and volunteers began clean-up operations immediately (Cooperation, 2006).

- Four months after Katrina, the population was estimated at 158,353, only 37% of the pre-Katrina number” (Kates, et al., 2006).

Long-term;

- Meetings, conferences and events were cancelled, postponed or relocated - lasting detriment to the recovery of the tourism industry in the area (Cooperation, 2006).
- Within one year, tourism was beginning to return although visitor spending was insufficient (Cooperation, 2006).

Ultimate Resolution/Lessons Learned
- Safety and security measures must be refined and enhanced (Cooperation, 2006).

- Risk and emergency management planning is needed for businesses and the government (Cooperation, 2006)

- Understand community and environmental vulnerabilities (Cooperation, 2006)

- Identification of vital resources and planning can help minimise losses (Cooperation, 2006)

- Thorough evacuation procedures (Cooperation, 2006)

- Crisis communications should begin before an event and be maintained (Cooperation, 2006)

- Tourism recovery is heavily dependent on successful community recovery

- Disaster managers should minimise the potential for a “cascade effect”, caused by the onset of the primary event (Cooperation, 2006)

- The failure of the Federal Government (Moynihan, 2009).

San Diego, Cedar Fire, 2003.

l_tucker2728 — 2018-02-22 12:22:04 UTC

Pre-event phase: Caused by lost hunter. When first reported, officials said it was "nothing to worry about".
Prodromal state: after more reports of the wildfire, first responders were on the case within 10 minutes.
Emergency phase:
- Evacuation notices were issued door-to-door.
- The media were extremely important in communicating the disaster.
- 20 agencies contributed as a first response.
Recovery:
- loss of 24 commercial buildings.
- 5000 newly unemployed residents.
- $32 million drop in tourism revenue.
Resolution:
- New schemes, management and operations were put in to place due to backlash of citizens for how the wildfire was dealt with.

THAILAND

r_ashton7488 — 2018-02-22 12:23:05 UTC

- Over 8,200 deaths and missing people; and
- 2,436 foreign nationals from 37 countries (Robertson, et al., 2006).

PREPAREDNESS / RESPONSE / RECOVERY PHASE

m_prudames4864 — 2018-02-22 12:24:00 UTC

FAULKNER’S CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR CRISIS MANAGEMENT (2001)

PRE-EVENT PHASE

- Locals were not efficiently warned by officials. (York Press, 2016)

PRODROMAL PHASE
- City Centre Evacuation Plan
- City centre was colour zoned on maps and numbered 1-24. Local businesses were given a copy.
(City of York Council, 2018)
EMERGENCY PHASE
- 10,000 sandbags
- 600 military personnel
- 125 mountain rescue members
- York Rescue Boat teams and volunteers helped
(York Press, 2016)
IMMEDIATE AND LONG-TERM RECOVERY
IMMEDIATE
- 250 people evacuated from their homes in the city centre (York Press, 2016)
- #YorkOpen4Business Campaign
LONG-TERM

- £45 million to reduce the risk and increase protection (Laycock, 2016)

- £17 million improvement project on the Foss Barrier (Environment Agency, 2016)

- Flood re-insurance (Stott, 2016)
- Online appeal. £100,000 donated by Nestlé (York Press, 2016)

ULTIMATE RESOLUTION (Lessons learned at destination level)

- York’s 5-year flood plan published in November 2016 includes flood reduction measures:

o creating storage areas

o increasing pumping capacity

o raising and building new walls

o raising land

o building embankments

"peak river flows may increase by 20 per cent by 2040 if present trends continue.” (Laycock, 2016)

IMPACTS

r_ashton7488 — 2018-02-22 12:28:10 UTC

- Fisheries and agricultural industries were destroyed; and
- Hotels, tourist resorts and tourism infrastructure were destroyed (Thanawood, et al., 2006).

l_burns2678 — 2018-02-22 12:30:24 UTC

PREPARATION

r_ashton7488 — 2018-02-22 12:31:45 UTC

- Thailand lacked a master plan for disaster management;
- No specific responsible unit;
- Lack of information management or database system; and
- Slow decision-making in national level for emergency relief activities
(Moe & Pathranarakul, 2006).

Santa Barbara, Thomas Fire, 2017.

l_tucker2728 — 2018-02-22 12:32:09 UTC

Pre-event phase: The cause is unknown, but considered to be a cause of a severe drought, scorching temperatures, and strong winds.
Prodromal state: 1,000 firefighters were on the case in less than 12 hours.
Emergency phase:

RESPONSE

r_ashton7488 — 2018-02-22 12:36:09 UTC

- Sixteen earthquake observation stations installed;
- Two tidal stations were upgraded;
- A hazard map to enhance awareness among the community and future tourists; and
- Preparedness and evacuation plans were created
(Srivichai, et al., 2007).

l_tucker2728 — 2018-02-22 12:39:23 UTC

Recovery:
- Local Assistance Centre (LAC) opened January 12 2018.
- California Department of Toxic Substances Control (DTSC) created a two-phase recovery scheme in partnership with the Environmental Health Divison.
Resolution:
- Financially challenging due to mass work in permitting, planning and re-building.
- Schemes and response are being re-analysed for constant improvements to their services, but will take years to be studied and adjusted to an adaptable structure.

ECONOMIC IMPACT OF GORKHA

l_burns2678 — 2018-02-22 12:39:59 UTC

Housing - 50% cost

Tourism- 11% cost

Environment - 5% cost

Education - 5% cost

Finance - 5% cost

Agriculture - 5%

RECOVERY

r_ashton7488 — 2018-02-22 12:42:27 UTC

- Focus has been placed on emotional support, physical reconstruction, safety and greater tourism sustainability (Robertson, et al., 2006).

LESSONS TO BE LEARNED

r_ashton7488 — 2018-02-22 12:44:38 UTC

- Thailand's disaster management must be strengthened
- Thailand authorities created the "National Disaster Risk Management Plan" (Thailand Government, 2015).

STAKEHOLDERS

m_prudames4864 — 2018-02-22 12:47:39 UTC

- Visit York
- Make it York: DMO
- Locals
- Local Businesses
- City of York Council
- UK Government
- Major Incident Response Team
- Citizens Advice Consumer Helpline
- Local & National Firefighters
- Mountain Rescue Teams
- Army
- The Environment Agency
- Archbishops Holgate School
- Media

KEY STAKEHOLDER

r_ashton7488 — 2018-02-22 12:47:53 UTC

- The National Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Committee

Four frameworks:
- To improve and promote disaster risk reduction;
- To create partnership efforts to develop and enhance the capacities for emergency management;
- To develop a disaster recovery system; and
- To develop and promote the standards on international cooperation
(Suppasri, et al., 2015).

Stakeholders

kirsty_lane1997 — 2018-02-22 12:48:11 UTC

- Tourism Representatives
- Local Community
- Tourists
- Media
- Government
- FEMA
- Health Services
- Army

Impacts

kirsty_lane1997 — 2018-02-22 12:49:53 UTC

- Crime (looting)

- Death

- Damage to property and infrastructure

- Mass flooding

- Displacement of residents

- Loss of property

- Sanitation and disease outbreaks

- Homelessness

- Financial loss

- Change in the ecological system

- Strong winds

- Sea level increase

- Torrential rain

- Storm surges

Stakeholders

l_tucker2728 — 2018-02-22 12:54:49 UTC

Comparison

l_tucker2728 — 2018-02-22 12:55:17 UTC

l_tucker2728 — 2018-02-22 12:57:21 UTC

l_tucker2728 — 2018-02-22 12:57:46 UTC

l_tucker2728 — 2018-02-22 12:58:02 UTC

Hurricane Harvey

kirsty_lane1997 — 2018-02-22 12:59:31 UTC

Category 1 Hurricane - caused 34 deaths (Berg, 2013)

Vulnerability

kirsty_lane1997 — 2018-02-22 13:01:00 UTC

- The geographical location of the destination (humid subtropical/Tropical climate) makes the risk of hurricanes more likely
- Climate change
- Political Decisions

BANGLADESH CASE STUDY

m_prudames4864 — 2018-02-22 13:04:37 UTC

What causes flooding in Bangladesh? (BBC Schools, 2014)

Duration

kirsty_lane1997 — 2018-02-22 13:05:17 UTC

21st - 30th August 2012 (Service, 2017)

FLOOD PREVENTION

m_prudames4864 — 2018-02-22 13:11:19 UTC

(BBC Schools, 2014)

Speed of Onset

kirsty_lane1997 — 2018-02-22 13:13:24 UTC

"Very slow-moving storm, at times remaining either stationary and drifting backwards onto its path, this resulted in an extremely long duration for sustained tropical force winds (up to 45 hours) (Liu, et al, 2014; Berg, 2013).

RESPONSES TO FLOODING

m_prudames4864 — 2018-02-22 13:13:43 UTC

SHORT-TERM
- Food aid from the Government and other countries.
- Water purification tablets.
- People repaired embankments and helped to rescue people.
- Free seed given to farmers.

LONG-TERM
- Building embankments.
- Building raised flood shelters.
- Introducing flood warning systems.
- Emergency planning.
- Dams planned.
- Reducing deforestation.

(BBC Schools, 2014)

m_prudames4864 — 2018-02-22 13:14:50 UTC

IMPACTS

m_prudames4864 — 2018-02-22 13:17:00 UTC

SHORT-TERM
- Seasonal flooding is beneficial - provides water for the rice and jute and helps to keep the soil fertile
- 2007 flooding made 9 million people homeless and approximately 1,000 people died from drowning

LONG-TERM
- Diseases increase during and after floods (Brouwer, Akter, Brander, & Haque, 2007)

Impacts

kirsty_lane1997 — 2018-02-22 13:20:06 UTC

- Heavy rainfall, causing flooding (Berg, 2013)
- Destruction of businesses
- Extensive storm surge (Berg, 2013)

- Mass flooding (Berg, 2013)

- Isolated neighbourhoods (Berg, 2013)
- Lack of electricity (Berg, 2013)

- Agricultural losses are estimated to be cost $30 million (Berg, 2013)

- produced 17 tornadoes (Berg, 2013).

- Societal and biophysical effects of Hurricane Isaac greatly exceeded the norm (Liu, et al., 2014).

- Economical losses (FEMA, 2018) - $2.35 billion (Gallagher, et al., 2015)
- Traffic congestion (Gallagher, et al., 2015)

- Destruction of levees (Berg, 2013)

- Excessive winds (Berg, 2013)

- Landslides, destroying infrastructure (Berg, 2013) (Gallagher, et al., 2015)

- Ecological destruction (Berg, 2013)

- Damage to buildings and infrastructure (Berg, 2013)

- Debris

- Brought down power lines (Berg, 2013)

- Storm tide causing coastal erosion, 1ft - 9ft waves (Berg, 2013)

Faulkner (2001)

kirsty_lane1997 — 2018-02-22 13:24:26 UTC

Pre-Event Phase
- Prior natural disasters stakeholders have produced preparedness plans such as evacuation maps and strategies (Keller, 2009).

- The Hurricane and Storm Damage Risk Reduction System (HSDRRS), funded after Hurricane Katrina successfully protected much of the Greater New Orleans area from storm surge (Berg, 2013).

Prodromal State (warning)
- “The genesis of Isaac was extremely well forecast” and therefore warnings were able to be provided within two days of the event (Berg, 2013).
- Thousands of residents were told to evacuate areas such as Louisiana, Mississippi, Haiti and the Dominican Republic (Berg, 2013).
Emergency Phase

- FEMA
- Deployed 6,000 troops (Guard, 2018).

- Over 1 million people were without electricity for 10 days (Gallagher, et al., 2015)

Immediate/Long-term Recovery
- FEMA (2018) aided the long-term recovery of the destination. $370.2m had been paid by FEMA on policy holders in Louisiana, $365.3m approved for residents of Louisiana and their communities and FEMA and the State approved $116 million for disaster assistance (FEMA, 2018). 198,808 people registered for assistance due to the impacts caused by Hurricane Isaac (FEMA, 2018). Restoration took approximately 2 weeks (Gallagher, et al., 2015)

Ultimate Resolution/Lessons Learned

· National Disaster Recovery Framework should inspire businesses, governments and destinations to prepare for natural disasters – stabilizing the social, environmental and economic factors in the community affected (FEMA, 2018).

· “Out of disaster comes opportunity, so we have an opportunity to be better than we were before,” St. John Parish Recovery Manager Raymond Goodman says in the video (FEMA, 2018).

· There needs to be a “larger scientific community” to “improve hurricane forecasts and address related challenges” (Zhang, 2011).

· Redevelopment and attracting businesses to invest in the affected communities is only going to happen if they feel a sense of security and strength (FEMA, 2018).

· There should be improved access to gasoline, through generators, when there is an electricity shortage should a similar crisis develop in the future (Gallagher, et al., 2015).

VULNERABILITY

m_prudames4864 — 2018-02-22 13:31:20 UTC

- Historical - vulnerable due to its location
- Climate change - weather patterns - surface run-off - increased hard surfaces

Stakeholders

kirsty_lane1997 — 2018-02-22 13:35:48 UTC

- Local Community
- Media
- Business Owners
- Tourism Representatives
- Health Services
- FEMA
- Government
- Army
- Tourism Representatives
- Tourists

International response to Gorkha

l_burns2678 — 2018-02-22 13:42:16 UTC

Similarities between all Natural Disasters

l_tucker2728 — 2018-02-24 13:06:08 UTC

- All natural disasters only have protection schemes in place after a major disaster that has taken a huge toll, economically and environmentally, on the destination.
- Emergency phases are criticised within the earlier disasters, as the destination has either not expected it, or they were still learning on the best way to deal with it.
- Tourism in the destination is always impacted in some capacity, due to the temporary or permanent closure of businesses and other establishments.
- The development of technology has made a difference in how disasters affect a destination (such as the monitoring of wildfires and hurricanes, being able to put the emergency phase into place quicker and more efficiently).
- All natural disasters seem to be becoming much more powerful, destructive and frequent due to the impact of climate change.
- All schemes and recovery strategies are in place in order to prevent or weaken future disasters.

Differences between all Natural Disasters

l_tucker2728 — 2018-02-24 13:06:59 UTC

- The economic level of a destination demonstrates the impact taken. The impact of the earthquake in Iran and Landslide in Nepal demonstrates the struggle to prepare and recover from the disasters. However, in destinations such as California and York, the disasters were recovered more efficiently in developing ways to prevent future disasters due to their larger economy of financial aid.
- Technology advances in third-world compared to first-world destinations shows the difference between struggling during the prodromal state and emergency phase, and being able to connect with citizens in order to save lives.
- Wealthier destinations impacts are relatively shorter, due to their ability to spend money aiding and repairing damages, whereas poorer countries are seen to struggle with recovering from the disasters and taking a larger period of time to return to 'normal'.
- Wealthier destinations also have the money to build infrastructure from stronger and more dependable materials, meaning when disaster hits there are less infrastructure damage and fewer fatalities from collapsing buildings.
- Poorer countries depend on foreign aid from the wealthier countries, as they are not financially stable enough to recover from the disaster themselves (such as Nepal seeking help form 60 countries). Whereas destinations such as California and New Orleans were supported mainly by their own country stakeholders.
- All schemes and recovery strategies are studied and updated more frequently in wealthier countries, whereas poorer countries have the same strategies in place as they are unaware of scientific and global developments and trends.

References (Rebecca)

l_tucker2728 — 2018-02-26 11:28:07 UTC

- British Red Cross, n.d. Iran Earthquake 2003. [Online]
Available at: http://www.redcross.org.uk/What-we-do/Emergency-response/Past-emergency-appeals/Iran-earthquake-2003
[Accessed 21 02 2018].

- Collins, 2018. Definition of 'earthquake'. [Online] Available at: https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/earthquake [Accessed 19 02 2018].

- Ghafory-Ashtiany, M. & Hosseini, M., 2008. Post-Bam earthquake: recovery and recontrsuction. Natural Hazards, Volume 44, pp. 229-241.
- Motamedi, M. H. K., Saghafinia, M., Bafarani, A. H. & Panahi, F., 2009. A Reassessment and Review of the Bam Earthquake Five Years Onward: What Was Done Wrong?. Prehosp Disaster Med, 24(5), pp. 453-460.
- Nakamura, T. et al., 2005. Souce fault structure of the 2003 Bam earthquake, southeastern Iran, inferred from the aftershock distribution and its relation to the heavily damaged area: Existence of the Arg-e-Bam fault proposed. Geophysical Research Letters, 32(9).
- National Ocean Service, 2017. What is a tsunami?. [Online] Available at: https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/tsunami.html
[Accessed 21 02 2018].
- Nekoei-Moghadam, M., Amiresmaili, M. & Aradoei, Z., 2016. Investigation of obstacles against effective crisis management in earthquake. Journal of Acute Disease, 5(2), pp. 91-95.
- Robertson, D., Kean, I. & Moore, S., 2006. Tourism Risk Management: An Authoritative Guide to Managing Crises in Tourism, s.l.: APEC International Centre for Sustainable Tourism.
- Sadeghi-Bazargani, H., Azami-Aghdash, S., Kazemi, A. & Ziapour, B., 2015. Crisis Management Aspects of Bam Catastrophic Earthquake: Review Article. Heath Promotion Perspectives, 5(1), pp. 3-13.
- TEC, 2006. Impact of the tsunami responce on local and national capacities, s.l.: Tsunami Evaluation Coalition.
- Thailand Government, 2015. Thailand: Natural Disaster Risk Management Plan, Phuket: Thailand Government.
- Thanawood, C., Yongchalermchai, C. & Densrisereekul, O., 2006. EFFECTS OF THE DECEMBER 2004 TSUNAMI AND DISASTER -MANAGEMENT IN SOUTHERN THAILAND. Science of Tsunami Hazrads, 24(3), pp. 206-217.

References (Levi)

l_tucker2728 — 2018-02-26 11:29:18 UTC

BBC News. (2017). California fire largest in state history. [online] Available at:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-42464835 [Accessed Feb 21 2018].

· CAL FIRE. (2017). THOMAS FIRE INCIDENT UPDATE. [online]. Available at: <http://cdfdata.fire.ca.gov/admin8327985/cdf/images/incidentfile1922_3312.pdf> [Accessed Feb 21 2018]

· Downey, D. (2003). Firestorm 2003: A story of a catastrophe – San Diego Union Tribune. [Online]. Available at: <http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-firestorm-2003-the-story-of-a-catastrophe-2003nov16-story.html> [Accessed Feb 18 2018].

· Diaz, J. (2012). Economic Impacts of Wildfire. [online] Fireadaptednetwork.org. Available at:https://fireadaptednetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/economic_costs_of_wildfires.pdf [Accessed 19 Feb. 2018].

· Fablano, J. (2018). Southern California to feel effects of the Thomas Fire for years, if not decades, experts say. [online] Accuweather.com. Available at: <https://www.accuweather.com/en/weather-news/from-air-quality-to-mudslides-the-immediate-and-long-lasting-impacts-of-the-thomas-fires/70003894> [Accessed 22 Feb. 2018].

· FEMA. (2014). Federal Emergency Management Agency – The California Fires Coordiation Group. [Online]. Available at: <https://www.fema.gov/pdf/library/draft_cfcg_report_0204.pdf> [Accessed Feb 20 2018].

· Girnius, T., Hauteniemi, T. and Stransky, S. (2008). California Wildfires: How Large Can The Losses Be?. [Online]Air-worldwide.com. Available at: <http://air-worldwide.com/_public/NewsData/001563/
AIRCurrents_CaliWildfires.pdf> [Accessed Feb 18 2018].

· Hutto, Richard L. (1 December 2008). "The Ecological Importance of Severe Wildfires: Some Like It Hot". Ecological Applications. 18 (8): 1827–1834. doi:10.1890/08-0895.1. ISSN 1939-5582. Archived from the original on 24 February 2016.

· Lockhart, G. (2007). 2003 Southern California Fires AFTER ACTION REPORT. [Online]. San Diego State University Foundation. Available at <https://interwork.sdsu.edu/fire/resources/documents/2003
GovAfterActionReport.pdf> [Accessed Feb 18 2018].

· National Geographic. (2017). Learn more about Wildfires. [Online]. Available at: <https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/natural-disasters/wildfires/> [Accessed Feb 18 2018].

· NIST. (2012). NIST and Forest Service Create World’s First Hazard Scale for Wildland Fires. [Online]. Available at: <https://www.nist.gov/news-events/news/2012/12/nist-and-forest-service-create-worlds-first-hazard-scale-wildland-fires> [Accessed Feb 18 2018]

· NIST. (2017). NIST Funds 12 Projects to Make Communities More Resilient to Dsasters. [Online]. Available at: <https://www.nist.gov/news-events/news/2017/08/nist-funds-12-projects-make-communities-more-resilient-disasters> [Accessed Feb 18 2018]

· Massey, N. (2013). Finally, a way to predict a wildfires behaviour in real time – Scientific American. [Online]. Available at: <https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/finally-a-way-to-predict-a-wildfires-behavior-in-real-time/> [Accessed Feb 18 2018]

· USDA. (2003). United States Department of Agriculture, The 2003 San Diego County Fire Siege, Fire Safety Review. [Online]. Available at: < https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/
stelprdb5297020.pdf> [Accessed Feb 19 2018].

· VCR (2018). Thomas Fire Debris Removal - Ventura County Recovers. [online]. Available at: <http://venturacountyrecovers.org/thomas-fire-debris-removal/> [Accessed 22 Feb. 2018].

· White, R. (2003). Cedar Fire Memorial – Lakeside Historical Society. [Online]. Available at: <http://www.lakesidehistory.org/CedarFire/cedar_fire_memorial.htm> [Accessed Feb 18 2018].

References (Mollie)

l_tucker2728 — 2018-02-26 11:32:03 UTC

BBC. (2015, December 7). How do you stop flooding? Retrieved from BBC News - Science & Environment: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-25929644
BBC News - England. (2004, August 13). York counts cost of 2000 flood. Retrieved February 21, 2018, from BBC News - England: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/north_yorkshire/3559528.stm
BBC News - York and North Yorkshire. (2010, November 3). In pictures: Floods of 2000. Retrieved February 21, 2018, from BBC News - York and North Yorkshire: http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/york/hi/people_and_places/newsid_9153000/9153477.stm
Canal Boat and The Tillergraph. (2009, May 8). River Ouse. Retrieved February 17, 2018, from Canal Boat and The Tillergraph: http://www.canalboat.co.uk/waterways/river-ouse-1-2257954
City of York Council. (2016, January 1). Financial support package for residents and businesses. Retrieved February 17, 2018, from York Floods: https://mediafiles.thedms.co.uk/Publication/YK/cms/pdf/CYCFloodsLeaflet-Jan15.pdf
City of York Council. (2016, January 1). Floods Update. Retrieved February 17, 2018, from City of York Council: https://www.york.gov.uk/downloads/file/8718/floods_update
City of York Council. (2018, January 1). Flooding in York Timeline. Retrieved February 21, 2018, from City of York Council - 2015 Flood Infographic: https://www.york.gov.uk/downloads/download/3530/2015_flood_infographic
Environment Agency. (2016, November 17). York 5 year flood plan. Retrieved from GOV.UK: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/york-5-year-flood-plan
Federal Emergency Management Association. (N.D., N.D. N.D.). Types of Floods and Floodplains. Retrieved February 21, 2018, from FEMA (Department of Homeland Security): https://training.fema.gov/hiedu/docs/fmc/chapter%202%20-%20types%20of%20floods%20and%20floodplains.pdf
Get Revising. (2010, June 13). York 2000 Flood. Retrieved February 21, 2018, from Get Revising: https://getrevising.co.uk/revision-cards/york_2000_flood
GOV.UK. (2018, January 1). Sign up for flood warnings. Retrieved February 19, 2018, from GOV.UK: https://www.gov.uk/sign-up-for-flood-warnings
Grant, K. (2015, December 28). 10 measures that must be taken to prevent more flooding in the future. Retrieved February 21, 2018, from The Independent: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/10-measures-that-must-be-taken-to-prevent-more-flooding-in-the-future-a6788866.html
Iowa Flood Center. (2018, January 1). Stream Stage Sensors. Retrieved February 21, 2018, from Iowa Flood Center: http://iowafloodcenter.org/projects/stream-stage-sensor/
Kennedy, M. (2017, April 6). York's Viking centre to reopen 16 months on from Christmas flood. Retrieved February 21, 2018, from The Guardian: https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2017/apr/06/yorks-viking-centre-to-reopen-christmas-flood-jorvik
Knowlson, L. (2015, December 29). FLOODS: Devastated business owners say they weren't warned of Foss Barrier decision - Walls have to be demolished to help with clear-up. Retrieved February 19, 2018, from York Press: http://www.yorkpress.co.uk/news/14172125.FLOODS__Devastated_business_owners_say_they_weren_t_warned_of_Foss_Barrier_decision___Walls_have_to_be_demolished_to_help_with_clear_up/
Laycock, M. (2016, May 20). UPDATED: 1,300 more York homes face flood risk - See new proposals for 10 neighbourhoods. Retrieved February 19, 2018, from York Press: http://www.yorkpress.co.uk/news/14507541.UPDATED__1_300_more_York_homes_face_flood_risk___See_new_proposals_for_10_neighbourhoods/
Laycock, M. (2016, April 7). Work starts on £13m Foss Barrier upgrade. Retrieved February 19, 2018, from York Press: Work starts on £13m Foss Barrier upgrade
Lisa at York Stories. (2012, September 28). Why does York flood? Retrieved February 17, 2018, from York Stories: http://yorkstories.co.uk/why-does-york-flood/
Maddox, I. (2014, October 31). Three Common Types of Flood Explained. Retrieved February 21, 2018, from Intermap: http://www.intermap.com/risks-of-hazard-blog/three-common-types-of-flood-explained
Met Office. (2014, May 20). What Causes Flash Floods? Retrieved February 21, 2018, from Met Office: https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/learning/rain/flash-floods
National Weather Service. (2018, January 1). High Water Level Terminology. Retrieved February 19, 2018, from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: http://www.weather.gov/aprfc/terminology
Pidd, H. (2016, December 26). A year after the deluge, York is still counting the cost. Retrieved February 21, 2018, from The Guardian: https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/dec/26/a-year-after-the-deluge-york-is-still-counting-the-cost
Ready Gov. (2018, January 1). Be Informed - Floods. Retrieved February 17, 2018, from Ready Gov: https://www.ready.gov/floods
Ross, A. (2016, January 26). Full cost of York floods revealed by new figures - City of York Council hands out almost £1million in grants. Retrieved February 19, 2018, from York Press: http://www.yorkpress.co.uk/news/14228928.Full_cost_of_York_floods_revealed_by_new_figures___Council_hands_out_almost___1million_in_grants/
Stott, J. (2016, February 6). After the floods, York’s residents try to piece their lives back together. Retrieved from The Guardian: https://www.theguardian.com/money/2016/feb/06/after-york-floods-residents-piece-lives-back-together
The Location of Moor Monkton. (2015, January 1). The Location of Moor Monkton. Retrieved February 17, 2018, from Moor Monkton Mercury: http://www.moormonktonmercury.co.uk/village.html
UK Government. (2018, January 1). Prepare for flooding. Retrieved February 21, 2018, from GOV.UK: https://www.gov.uk/prepare-for-flooding
Visit York. (2016, January 5). #Yorkopen4business. Retrieved February 17, 2018, from Visit York: https://www.visityork.org/members/news/yorkopen4business.aspx
Visit York. (2016, April 4). Latest Tourism Intelligence - February 2016. Retrieved February 17, 2018, from Visit York: https://www.visityork.org/members/news/tourism-intelligence-feb-16.aspx
York and North Yorkshire BBC News Reporter. (2010). In pictures: Floods of 2000. York: BBC News. Retrieved February 16, 2018, from http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/york/hi/people_and_places/newsid_9153000/9153477.stm
York Press. (2016, July 28). York floods 2015: How the devastating floods unfolded and how York rallied superbly. Retrieved February 18, 2018, from York Press: http://www.yorkpress.co.uk/news/14168299.York_floo

References (Leueen)

l_tucker2728 — 2018-02-26 11:35:18 UTC

USGS (2018). What is a landslide and what causes one?. [online] Available at: https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-a-landslide-and-what-causes-one?qt-news_science_products=7#qt-news_science_products [Accessed 17 Feb. 2018].
Woods, M. and Woods, M. (2010). Mudflows and Landslides. 2nd ed. London: Lerner Books, pp.6-16.
Sites.dartmouth.edu. (2018). Monsoons | Nepal Earthquake Case Studies. [online] Available at: http://sites.dartmouth.edu/NepalQuake-CaseStudies/monsoons/ [Accessed 17 Feb. 2018].
Goda, K., Kiyota, T., Pokhrel, R., Chiaro, G., Katagiri, T., Sharma, K. and Wilkinson, S. (2015). The 2015 Gorkha Nepal Earthquake: Insights from Earthquake Damage Survey. Frontiers in Built Environment, [online] 1. Available at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fbuil.2015.00008/full [Accessed 17 Feb. 2018].
Roback, K., Clark, M., West, A., Zekkos, D., Li, G., Gallen, S., Chamlagain, D. and Godt, J. (2018). The size, distribution, and mobility of landslides caused by the 2015 M w 7.8 Gorkha earthquake, Nepal. Geomorphology, 301, pp.121-138.
Tuladhar, S. (2016). Impact of the Great Earthquake - 2015 on Hospitality Industry of Nepal. Journal of Tourism and Hospitality, 7, pp.88-114.
Cruden,D.M., Varnes, D.J., 1996, Landslide Types and Processes, Special Report , Transportation Research Board, National Academy of Sciences, 247:36-75
Inada, R. and Takagi, M. (2010). Methods of landslide measurement by ground based lidar. Kochi University of Technology, [online] Volume XXXVIII(Part 8), pp.266-270. Available at: http://www.isprs.org/proceedings/XXXVIII/part8/pdf/W01OE4_20100308152044.pdf [Accessed 20 Feb. 2018].
MoHA (2015). Nepal Disaster Report. [online] Nepal: The Government of Nepal, Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA and Disaster Preparedness Network-Nepal (DPNet-Nepal). Available at: http://www.drrportal.gov.np/uploads/document/329.pdf [Accessed 20 Feb. 2018].
The Guardian. (2016). Trekking in Nepal – a year on from the earthquake. [online] Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2016/apr/25/treking-nepal-one-year-after-earthquake [Accessed 20 Feb. 2018].
Naturally Nepal. (2018). [image] Available at: https://www.welcomenepal.com/places-to-see/Langtang.html [Accessed 21 Feb. 2018].
Queenelizabeths.derbyshire.sch.uk. (2018). [online] Available at: https://www.queenelizabeths.derbyshire.sch.uk/PDF/sixthform/work-2017/Geography%20-%20Nepal%20Gorkha%20earthquake.pdf [Accessed 21 Feb. 2018].
Henceroth, J. and Thompson, A. (2018). Case Langtang, Nepal. [online] Research.gsd.harvard.edu. Available at: http://research.gsd.harvard.edu/riskandresilience/files/2017/03/Retreat-REbuild-Cases.pdf [Accessed 21 Feb. 2018].

References (Kirsty)

l_tucker2728 — 2018-02-26 11:36:15 UTC

- Baade, R. A., Baumann, R. & Matheson, V., 2007. Estimating the Economic Impact of Natural and Social Disasters, with an Application to Hurricane Katrina. Urban Studies, 44(11), pp. 2061 - 2076.

- Berg, R., 2013. Tropical Cyclone Report, s.l.: National Hurricane Center.

- Cohen, S. & Stone, M. H., 2017. The inﬂuence of an extended Atlantic hurricane season on inland ﬂooding potential in the southeastern United States. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 17(3), pp. 439 - 447.

- Cooperation, A.-P. E., 2006. Chapter 2: Risk Management for Tourism Crises and Disasters. Tourism Risk Management: An Authoritative Guide to Managing Crisis in Tourism, December.pp. 16 - 35.

- Cross, A. R., 2015. Welcome to the Disaster Services Map, Weather & Hazard Catalogs. [Online]
Available at: http://maps.redcross.org/website/maps/images/Louisiana/LA_state1_evac.pdf
[Accessed 18 February 2018].

- Crown, 2015. Development of Tropical Storms. [Online] Available at: https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/learning/learn-about-the-weather/weather-phenomena/tropical-cyclones/development [Accessed 16 February 2018].

- Crown, 2015. What are Hurricanes?. [Online] Available at: https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/learning/learn-about-the-weather/weather-phenomena/tropical-cyclones [Accessed 16 February 2018].
- Data, U. C., 2018. What are hurricanes?. [Online] Available at: www.usclimatedata.org[Accessed 15 February 2018].
- eSchooltoday, 2017. Hurricanes and Tropical Storms. [Online] Available at: www.eschooltoday.com
[Accessed 16 February 2018].
- FEMA, 2018. Louisiana Hurricane Isaac. [Online] Available at: https://www.fema.gov/disaster/4080
[Accessed 18 February 2018].
- Gallagher, H., Miles, S. B. & Jagielo, N., 2015. Hurricane Isaac Power Outage Impacts and Restoration. J. Infrastruct. Syst., pp. 1 - 9.
- Geographic, N., 2018. Hurricanes. [Online] Available at: video.nationalgeographic.com/video/101-videos/hurricanes-101
[Accessed 16 February 2018].
- Gregory, E. W. et al., 2011. A Social Vulnerability Index for Disaster. Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management, 8(1), pp. 1 - 22.
- Guard, L. N., 2018. Hurricane Isaac. [Online] Available at: geauxguard.la.gov [Accessed 18 February 2018].
- Hurricanescience, 2015. Hurricane Lifecycle. [Online] Available at: http://www.hurricanescience.org/science/science/hurricanelifecycle/ [Accessed 16 February 2018].
- Kates, R. W., Colten, C. E., Laska, S. & Leatherman, S. P., 2006. Reconstruction of New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina: A research perspective. The National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 3 October, 130(40), pp. 14653 - 14660.
- Keller, 2009. State of Louisiana Evacuation Plan / Contraflow. [Online]
Available at: http://www.kenner.la.us/6/State_Evacuation_Plan__Contraflow_061716.pdf
[Accessed 18 February 2018].
- Liu, K.-b.et al., 2014. Hurricane Isaac Storm Surge Deposition in a Coastal Wetland along Lake Pontchartrain, Southern Louisiana. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue, Issue 70, pp. 266 - 271.
- Loesche, D., 2017. Stormy Season I: Number of Hurricanes Since 1967. [Online] Available at: Stormy Season I: Number of Hurricanes Since 1967 [Accessed 16 February 2018].
- Marten, H. M., Feldesz, K. & Merten, P., 2016. Crisis Management in Tourism - A Literature Based Approach on the Proactive Prediction of a Crisis and the Implementation of Prevention Measures. Athens Journal of Tourism, 3(2), pp. 89 - 101.
- Moynihan, D. P., 2009. The Response of Hurricane Katrina. [Online] Available at: https://www.irgc.org/
[Accessed 17 February 2018].
- NASA, 2014. What are Hurricanes?. [Online]
Available at: https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/nasa-knows/what-are-hurricanes-k4.html
[Accessed 16 February 2018].
- Orleans, B. o. C. o. t. P. o. N., 2006. Crisis Management and how Hurricane Katrina Changed the Dynamics. [Online]
Available at: http://www.aapa-ports.org/ [Accessed 17 February 2018].
- Police, L. S., 2016. Louisiana Emergency Preparedness Guide. [Online] Available at: http://www.lsp.org/pdf/2016EmergencyGuide_English.pdf [Accessed 18 February 2018].
- Porch, M. A., n.d. The Trauma's Associated with Hurricane Katrina. Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale, pp. 1 - 13.
- Safety, T. I. I. f. B. &. H., 2010. Hurricane. [Online] Available at: https://disastersafety.org/about/
[Accessed 18 February 2018].
- Service, N. W., 2016. Hurricane Katrina. [Online] Available at: www.weather.gov [Accessed 17 February 2018].
- Service, N. W., 2017. Hurricane Isaac. [Online] Available at: https://www.weather.gov/mob/isaac
[Accessed 17 February 2018].
- Zhang, F., 2011. The Future of Hurricane Prediction. Computing in Science and Research, pp. 9 - 12.
- Zissimopoulos, J. & Karoly, L., 2010. Employment and Self-Employment in the Wake of Hurricane Katrina. Demography, 47(2), pp. 345 - 367.