Low in ecological validity. Exposure to the phobic object consisted of a video of a plane journey which took place in a lab at a university This doesn't reflect everyday life.

Over the 12 critical trials, about 75% of participants conformed at least once, and 25% of participants never conformed.

In the control group, with no pressure to conform to confederates, less than 1% of participants gave the wrong answer.

The participants in laboratory experiments are rarely 'real groups'. More often than not they are a collection of students who do not know each other and will probably never meet again. They are also involved in an artificial task.  As such they are very different from minority groups in the wider society who seek to change majority opinion.
Also Moscovici (1969) used female students as participants , so it would be wrong to generalize his result to all people – they only tell us about the behavior of female students.
females are said to be more conformist than males, therefore there might be a gender difference in the way that males and females respond to minority influence. Another critic could be that four people are not enough for a group and could not be considered as the majority.

Asch’s sample consisted of 50 male students from Swarthmore College in America, who believed they were taking part in a vision test. Asch used a line judgement task, where he placed on real naïve participants in a room with seven confederates (actors), who had agreed their answers in advance. The real participant was deceived and was led to believe that the other seven people were also real participants. The real participant always sat second to last.

In turn, each person had to say out loud which line (A, B or C) was most like the target line in length.

Minority influence is generally felt only after a period of time, and tends to produce private acceptance of the views expressed by the minority.

An important real-life example of a minority influencing a majority was the suffragette movement in the early years of the 20th century.

- study 1- aimed to investigate the effects in a violent video game context where players were violent towards each other.
- study 2- aimed to investigate whether playing violently against a computer avatars rather than human opponents had any effect on self-perceived humanity

Procedure -study 1-

- mortal kombat

- 106 ppts

-undergraduates aged 17-34 

- randomly assigned into groups

- views same screen but were separated 

- 52 plAy mortal amd 54 spin tennis (non- violent)

-ppts asked how much they enjoyed the game and how frustrated it made them feel 1-7.

- Had to rate themselves on human nature and rate their opponent on the same
Results -study 1-

There was a significant difference between the two groups on rating of both self+humanity and the humanity of the other player, with those playing non violent games perceiving both themselves and the opponent as having more humanity.
Conclusion -study 1-

It was concluded that the applying of violent video games decrease the perceived humanity of both the player and other people that they are playing against.
GENERLISISBILTY : 
A weakness of the study is the poor generalizability. Although the sample was relatively large (106), it comprised all undergraduates students (mean age 19) and there were more than twice as many women in the sample as men. This means that  violent video games may not have the same dehumanising effect on older or younger players and those from less affluent or well-educated backgrounds. Also the gender imbalance means the findings may not be the same with all males and this is important as violent games tend  to be played more by males.
RELIABILITY: 
The results could be considered reliable as the standardised procedure that was employed makes the study replicable and thus scientific. There were mainly controlled variables such as ensuring that all players played the same game (Topspin tennis or Mortal Kombat) for the same amount of time, whilst blocked from being able to see their opponent by a barrier.
VALIDITY :
 validity problem with the study is it not clear what exactly is having the dehumanising effect and this is because in Mortal Kombat you observe violent acts being enacted but you are also in control of violent acts being committed in the game against others and therefore it is hard to disentangle whether observation of violence or being violent in the game is linked to dehumanisation.
validity problem with the study is it not clear what exactly is having the dehumanising effect and this is because in Mortal Kombat you observe violent acts being enacted but you are also in control of violent acts being committed in the game against others and therefore it is hard to disentangle whether observation of violence or being violent in the game is linked to dehumanisation.

-of the study is the poor generalizability. Although the sample was relatively large (106), it comprised all undergraduates students (mean age 19) and there were more than twice as many women in the sample as men. This means that  violent video games may not have the same dehumanising effect on older or younger players and those from less affluent or well-educated backgrounds. Also the gender imbalance means the findings may not be the same with all males and this is important as violent games tend  to be played more by males

+Do violent video games reduce our perceived ‘humanness’ of ourselves and co-players?

+Are perceptions of humanity of a co-player dependent on whether you play competitively against them or collaboratively with them against a third party?

• seated in front of a video screen with an X- box video game console

• Each had a wireless X- box controller and separate head phones

• both participants were looking at the same screen

• a portable dividing wall obscured their view of each other

Participants
Participants were 106 undergraduates (74 women, 32 men) who took part in the study for course credit. Their ages ranged from 17 to 34 years (M = 19.28, SD = 2.39). Participation was in groups of two with random assignment to conditions

• Concern about violent video games are nothing new

• but, graphics are now so realistic; anxieties have intensified

• negative effects are well documented and appear more significant than those associated with other forms of violent media.

• Research focuses on violent gaming leading to increased aggression but research shows players are also

– more likely to endorse violence in real-life

– more likely to see others as more hostile

– less likely to experience empathy

– less likely to engage in pro-social behaviour

– have reduced sensitivity to real-life violence, numbing them to the pain and suffering of others.

Why is violent gaming more influential than other violent media?

Players identify with and feel somewhat responsible for the violence actioned in virtual environments

They become personally engaged with video game content

They personally identify with video game avatars

They see themselves as more aggressive after playing violent games

moral disengagement strategies facilitate enjoyment of virtual violence

The Procedure :

 Participants were instructed not to interact

• interaction between participants was fully

mediated by the video game

• Pps played either two-player Mortal Kombat (n=52) or Top Spin Tennis (n=54) for 15min.

• After playing the video game participants were given a questionnaire to complete.

• participants also rated enjoyment, excitement and frustration whilst playing the games, on a 7 point scales, where 1 was low and 7 was high

• Afterwards, participants were asked about the possible purpose of the study, none indicated that they suspected any links between video game violence and dehumanization

+Participants found both games equally frustrating

+Mortal Kombat was marginally more enjoyable than Top Spin Tennis

+Mortal Kombat was significantly more exciting

• Playing a violent game, compared to playing a non- violent game, against another player leads to reduced perceptions of one's own humanity as well as the humanity of their opponent

• these effects cannot be accounted for by how enjoyable, exciting, or frustrating the game was and are not accounted for by any effects of gender

Despite this weakness, the design of the study means that the results could be considered reliable as the standardised procedure that was employed makes the study replicable and thus scientific. There were mainly controlled variables such as ensuring that all players played the same game (Topspin tennis or Mortal Kombat) for the same amount of time, whilst blocked from being able to see their opponent by a barrier. Also the questionnaires used quantitative data to find out about perceptions of humanity using likert scales and this means that the data is not open to interpretation by the researcher improving the reliability further.

Bastian’s study is without doubt an interesting study, however many psychologists advocate that violent video games are not directly linked to violent acts and a group of over 200 academics signed a letter to show their feelings about the APA report which suggested there was a link. This is important because many psychologists would argue that Bastian’s findings lack application to real life; just because you self-report feeling less human after playing for 15 minutes, does not mean that your intentions towards others or likely possible real world behaviours will change and make you become more violent.

This said, it is another piece of research that could be applied in schools to help educate pupils and parents about possible effects of violent game play. Interestingly the flip side of this is that playing co-operative games could in fact enhance feelings of humanity and this could be an area for future research. This could potentially be a way of helping children or adults who have problems with aggression to feel more connected to other people and less dehumanised and this would be a highly beneficial application for society.

With regard to validity the study has strengths and weaknesses, firstly the players only play for a very short amount of time and in the real word players often spend hours engaged in a game, however one could argue this simply demonstrates how quickly people become dehumanised and one could argue playing for longer would simply lead to even greater effects although this has not been studied and therefore potentially people reach a ceiling and then become more humanised again the longer they play.

Also as we know nothing of the participants previous gaming history the reason they say they feel more dehumanised could be due to demand characteristics in that they know this is the expected outcome and therefore demonstrate this through their self-report meaning that the conclusions lack internal validity.

Conformity studies involve a minority group who were conforming to the majority.  Moscovici (1976, 1980) argued along different lines.  He claimed that Asch (1951) and others had put too much emphasis on the notion that the majority in a group has a large influence on the minority. In his opinion, it is also possible for a minority to influence the majority. 

Conformity studies involve a minority group who were conforming to the majority.  Moscovici (1976, 1980) argued along different lines.  He claimed that  Asch (1951) and others had put too much emphasis on the notion that the majority in a group has a large influence on the minority. In his opinion, it is also possible for a minority to influence the majority. 

- To investigate whether playing violent video games has dehumanising consequences in relation to others and the self 
- study 1- aimed to investigate the effects in a violent video game context where players were violent towards each other.
- study 2- aimed to investigate whether playing violently against a computer avatars rather than human opponents had any effect on self-perceived humanity

Procedure -study 1-

- mortal kombat
- 106 ppts
-undergraduates aged 17-34 
- randomly assigned into groups
- views same screen but were separated 
- 52 plAy mortal amd 54 spin tennis (non- violent)
-ppts asked how much they enjoyed the game and how frustrated it made them feel 1-7.
- Had to rate themselves on human nature and rate their opponent on the same

Results -study 1-

There was a significant difference between the two groups on rating of both self+humanity and the humanity of the other player, with those playing non violent games perceiving both themselves and the opponent as having more humanity.
Conclusion -study 1-

It was concluded that the applying of violent video games decrease the perceived humanity of both the player and other people that they are playing against.

- To investigate whether playing violent video games has dehumanising consequences in relation to others and the self
- study 1- aimed to investigate the effects in a violent video game context where players were violent towards each other.
- study 2- aimed to investigate whether playing violently against a computer avatars rather than human opponents had any effect on self-perceived humanity

Procedure of study 1 is tha  mortal kombat 106 ppts undergraduates aged 17-34 randomly assigned into groups  views same screen but were separated 52 plAy mortal amd 54 spin tennis (non- violent) ppts asked how much they enjoyed the game and how frustrated it made them feel 1-7. Had to rate themselves on human nature and rate their opponent on the same. The results is that there was a significant difference between the two groups on rating of both self+humanity and the humanity of the other player, with those playing non violent games perceiving both themselves and the opponent as having more humanity. It was concluded that the applying of violent video games decrease the perceived humanity of both the player and other people that they are playing against.


Procedure of study is to  participants played Call of Duty 2 with another player against a computer-generated avatar.
The screen was split into two so the participants could see their own view point and their co-players viewpoint.
There were 38 participants, all undergraduates, who were randomly assigned to one of two conditions, playing either Call of Duty or Spin Tennis. Rate game like above PANAS used to measure self esteem. Results of study is that  those who played the violent video game seeing themselves as less human. There was no difference in the perception of the co-players' humanity between those who played the violent game and those who played the non-violent game. playing violent video games reduces self perception of humanity when playing as an avatar does not effect real life.

- To investigate whether playing violent video games has dehumanising consequences in relation to others and the self 
- study 1- aimed to investigate the effects in a violent video game context where players were violent towards each other.
- study 2- aimed to investigate whether playing violently against a computer avatars rather than human opponents had any effect on self-perceived humanity

Procedure -study 1-

- mortal kombat
- 106 ppts
-undergraduates aged 17-34 
- randomly assigned into groups
- views same screen but were separated 
- 52 plAy mortal amd 54 spin tennis (non- violent)
-ppts asked how much they enjoyed the game and how frustrated it made them feel 1-7.
- Had to rate themselves on human nature and rate their opponent on the same

Results -study 1-

There was a significant difference between the two groups on rating of both self+humanity and the humanity of the other player, with those playing non violent games perceiving both themselves and the opponent as having more humanity.
Conclusion -study 1-

It was concluded that the applying of violent video games decrease the perceived humanity of both the player and other people that they are playing against.

Conformity studies involve a minority group who were conforming to the majority.  Moscovici (1976, 1980) argued along different lines.  He claimed that Asch (1951) and others had put too much emphasis on the notion that the majority in a group has a large influence on the minority. In his opinion, it is also possible for a minority to influence the majority. 

 

however , that being said their validity might be low because the participants were only exposed to their phobias through a video , it was a real , tangible thing they needed to actually face , had this been were participants were exposed to their real phobias , it would’ve held more validity 

study included 2 groups of controlled participants , so they could track their behaviors and responses very easily and compare it to one another 

weakness 

the study only included a small group of people and could not count for the entire population, thus it cannot be generalized 

-of the study is the poor generalizability. Although the sample was relatively large (106), it comprised all undergraduates students (mean age 19) and there were more than twice as many women in the sample as men. This means that  violent video games may not have the same dehumanising effect on older or younger players and those from less affluent or well-educated backgrounds. Also the gender imbalance means the findings may not be the same with all males and this is important as violent games tend  to be played more by males

Volunteers through a media campaign advertising free treatment for aerophobia.

What type of method was used?

Lab

What was the IV?

Condition ppts were in 
- e.g. treatment/control group

What were the 3 DVs?

1) Diagnosis of fear with IDG-FV
- e.g. "How afraid of flying would you say you are?"
2) EMV measuring fear during flight, EPAV measuring catastrophic thoughts
3) Physiological measures

Briefly describe part 1 of the procedure of Capafons.

- Ppts were interviewed to complete a self-report measures of dependent variables 1 and 2
- Ppts were later called back to watch the simulation of flying from packing a suitcase to touching down after the flight
- The ppts physiological responses were measured for 3mins before being shown the video
- They then watched the video and were told to feel as involved as possible
- Room temp remained at 22.5 degrees and distance from the screen was 1.8m
- Their physiological responses were measured during this time

Briefly describe part 2 of the procedure of Capafons.

1) Experimental group
- Took lace over 8 weeks
- Ppts had 2 one hour sessions per week 
- 1st phase: relaxation training of breathing (4 sessions)
- 2nd phase: going through hierarchy (2 sessions)
- 3rd phase: applying it (3-5 sessions)
2) Control group
- Received no treatment yet

Briefly describe part 3 of the procedure of Capafons.

- Carried out after the patient had taken 2 in vivo flights (out and return)
- The first flight took place 7 days after treatment
- Recordings of heart rate, palm temp and muscular tension were recorded during take off

What were the results of this contemporary study?

- All variables decreased before and after treatment for the treatment group
- There was a decrease of 12.3 in fear during flight after treatment for the treatment group compared to an increase of 9.8 for the control group
- Catastrophic thoughts of the treatment group decreased by 5.3 whereas they increased by 0.09 for the control group

Describe the conclusion of this experiment.

- Overall there was a successful decrease in fear of flying in the treatment group
- There was no corresponding reduction in fear in the control group
- This shows that a mere passing of time is not enough to reduce fear

IV: Conditions participants were in.
3 DVs: 1) Diagnosis of fear with IDG-FV.
2) EMV measuring fear during flight, EPAV measuring catastrophic thoughts.
3) Physiological measures.
Part 1: - Ppts were interviewed to complete a self-report measures of dependent variables 1 and 2
- Ppts were later called back to watch the simulation of flying from packing a suitcase to touching down after the flight
- The ppts physiological responses were measured for 3mins before being shown the video
- They then watched the video and were told to feel as involved as possible
- Room temp remained at 22.5 degrees and distance from the screen was 1.8m
- Their physiological responses were measured during this time.
Part 2: 1) Experimental group
- Took lace over 8 weeks
- Ppts had 2 one hour sessions per week
- 1st phase: relaxation training of breathing (4 sessions)
- 2nd phase: going through hierarchy (2 sessions)
- 3rd phase: applying it (3-5 sessions)
2) Control group
- Received no treatment yet.
Part 3: - Carried out after the patient had taken 2 in vivo flights (out and return)
- The first flight took place 7 days after treatment
- Recordings of heart rate, palm temp and muscular tension were recorded during take off.
Results: - All variables decreased before and after treatment for the treatment group
- There was a decrease of 12.3 in fear during flight after treatment for the treatment group compared to an increase of 9.8 for the control group
- Catastrophic thoughts of the treatment group decreased by 5.3 whereas they increased by 0.09 for the control group.
Conclusion: - Overall there was a successful decrease in fear of flying in the treatment group
- There was no corresponding reduction in fear in the control group.
- This shows that a mere passing of time is not enough to reduce fear.

- 20 in the treatment

- 8 males and 12 females with a mean age of 29.65

- 21 in the control group

- 9 males and 12 females with a mean age of 34.05

Answer 2
Matched pairs:

- age

- sex

Answer 3
Volunteers through a media campaign advertising free treatment for aerophobia.

Answer 4
Lab


Answer 5
Condition ppts were in 

- e.g. treatment/control group


Answer 6
1) Diagnosis of fear with IDG-FV

- e.g. "How afraid of flying would you say you are?"

2) EMV measuring fear during flight, EPAV measuring catastrophic thoughts

3) Physiological measures

Answer 7
Ppts were interviewed to complete a self-report measures of dependent variables 1 and 2

- Ppts were later called back to watch the simulation of flying from packing a suitcase to touching down after the flight

- The ppts physiological responses were measured for 3mins before being shown the video

- They then watched the video and were told to feel as involved as possible

- Room temp remained at 22.5 degrees and distance from the screen was 1.8m

- Their physiological responses were measured during this time

Answer 8
1) Experimental group

- Took lace over 8 weeks

- Ppts had 2 one hour sessions per week 

- 1st phase: relaxation training of breathing (4 sessions)

- 2nd phase: going through hierarchy (2 sessions)

- 3rd phase: applying it (3-5 sessions)

2) Control group

- Received no treatment yet


Answer 9
Carried out after the patient had taken 2 in flights

- The first flight took place 7 days after treatment

- Recordings of heart rate, palm temp and muscular tension were recorded during take off


Answer 10
 All variables decreased before and after treatment for the treatment group


Answer 11
There was no corresponding reduction in fear in the control group

- EMV measuring fear during flight, EPAV measuring catastrophic thought 

- Physiological measures
6. Ppts were interviewed to complete a self-report measures of dependent variables 1 and 2

- Ppts were later called back to watch the simulation of flying from packing a suitcase to touching down after the flight

- The ppts physiological responses were measured for 3mins before being shown the video
Psychology measure were also measured .

7.Experimental group

- Took lace over 8 weeks

- Ppts had 2 one hour sessions per week 

- 1st phase: relaxation training of breathing (4 sessions)

- 2nd phase: going through hierarchy (2 sessions)

- 3rd phase: applying it (3-5 sessions)

2) Control group

- Received no treatment yet

8.Carried out after the patient had taken 2 in vivo flights (out and return)

- The first flight took place 7 days after treatment

- Recordings of heart rate, palm temp and muscular tension were recorded during take off

9. There was a successful reduction in fear of the treated group whereas no reductions in the control group . 
10. It has low ecological validity and low validity but in addition it does not have any unethical issues . 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

-conformity may be universal to some degree,but varies by culture. 

Weakness//

Only majority influence on minority not vice versa 

-ethical issues as deceived about purpose of experiment and embarrassing procedures 

Procedure”

Moreover, 20 were randomly assigned to treatment groups and other 21 were in the control group(who received no treatment)
-participants were respondents to a media campaign 

- Participants were later called back to watch the simulation of flying from packing a suitcase to touching down after the flight

- The participants physiological responses were measured for 3mins before being shown the video

- They then watched the video and were told to feel as involved as possible

- Room temp remained at 22.5 degrees and distance from the screen was 1.8m

- Their physiological responses were measured during this time

Carried out after the patient had taken 2 in vivo flights (out and return)

- The first flight took place 7 days after treatment

- Recordings of heart rate, palm temp and muscular tension were recorded during take off

Procedure”

Moreover, 20 were randomly assigned to treatment groups and other 21 were in the control group(who received no treatment)
-participants were respondents to a media campaign 

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Multi-Store Model of memory (MSM) was criticized for over-simplifying STM (as well as LTM) as a single storage system, so the WMM alternative proposed that STM is composed of three, limited capacity stores:

Central Executive – this manages attention, and controls information from the two ‘slave stores’ [below]

Articulatory-Phonological Loop – this temporarily retains language-based information, consisting of:

An articulatory rehearsal process (‘inner voice’) of language, including any language presented visually to convert to a phonological state, for storage in the:

Phonological store (‘inner ear’), which holds auditory speech information and the order in which it was heard (or any visually-presented language converted by the articulatory process)

Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad – this temporarily retains visual and spatial information.

One strength and weakness of working memory model:
One strength of the WMM is that there is evidence to support the phonological loop. Baddeley (1975) word length effect (short words easier to recall than long).One weakness of the working memory model is that the Central Executive is difficult to quantify.

Reconstructive memory:
This theory was proposed by Bartlett, one of the early figures in memory research. Bartlett’s central insight was that memory is not like a tape recorder: it doesn’t faithfully play back our experiences. Instead, it changes or “reconstructs” them imaginatively.It shows how scientific research proceeds, because Bartlett’s fairly unscientific research in the 1930s was improved upon by Loftus, who mounted much more rigorous lab experiments in the ‘70s and ‘80s.

It goes against the typical features of the Cognitive Approach, since it rejects the idea of memory being like the sort of information processing used by a computer - it's much more creative but less reliable than that!.
Schema theory:
Bartlett’s main idea is that our memory is grouped into categories called “schemas”. We have schemas for all sorts of thing – for what a “criminal” is like, for what counts as “food” and how to behave at the service counter in a fast food restaurant.

For example, in a Japanese sushi bar you might not know what behaviour is expected of you and it would be hard to make sense of what the other customers were doing and eating. 

Method: Conducted an experiment in which participants were asked to perform two tasks at the same time (dual task technique) - a digit span task which required them to repeat a list of numbers, and a verbal reasoning task which required them to answer true or false to various questions (e.g., B is followed by A?).

Results: As the number of digits increased in the digit span tasks, participants took longer to answer the reasoning questions, but not much longer - only fractions of a second.  And, they didn't make any more errors in the verbal reasoning tasks as the number of digits increased.

Conclusion: The verbal reasoning task made use of the central executive and the digit span task made use of the phonological loop.

Q2. Bartlett’s central insight was that memory is not like a tape recorder: it doesn’t faithfully play back our experiences. Instead, it changes or “reconstructs” them imaginatively.

Bartlett’s main idea is that our memory is grouped into categories called “schemas”. We have schemas for all sorts of thing – for what a “criminal” is like, for what counts as “food” and how to behave at the service counter in a fast food restaurant.

For example, in a Japanese sushi bar you might not know what behaviour is expected of you and it would be hard to make sense of what the other customers were doing and eating.

But if you paid attention, you would figure it out: you would start to develop a new schema.

Memory makes use of schemas to organise things. When we recall an event, our schemas tell us what is supposed to happen. The schemas might fill in the gaps in our memory (confabulation) and even put pressure on our mind to remember things in a way that fits in with the schema, removing or changing details. For example, you might remember the Japanese diners eating with chopsticks (because that’s part of your schema for Japanese meals) whereas in reality the Japanese use their fingers to eat sushi.

Q3. The multi-store model of memory (also known as the modal model) was proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968) and is a structural model. They proposed that memory consisted of three stores: a sensory register, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM).

Each store is a unitary structure and has its own characteristics in terms of encoding, capacity and duration.

Sensory Memory

• Duration: 1/4 to 1/2 second.

• Capacity: all sensory experience (v. larger capacity)

• Encoding: sense specific (e.g. different stores for each sense)

The sensory stores are constantly receiving information but most of this receives no attention and remains in the sensory register for a very brief period.

Short Term Memory

• Duration: 0-18 seconds

• Capacity: 7 +/- 2 items

• Encoding: mainly auditory

The STM store has a duration of up to 30 seconds, has a capacity of 7+/-2 chunks and mainly encodes information acoustically. Information is lost through displacement or decay.

Long Term Memory

• Duration: Unlimited

• Capacity: Unlimited

• Encoding: Mainly Semantic (but can be visual and auditory)

The LTM has unlimited capacity and duration and encodes information semantically. Information can be recalled from LTM back into the STM when it is needed.

Q4. Multi-Store model of memory

Strengths:

Q5.

 

Q2. Reconstructive Memory (Bartlett)

Memory does not work like a video recording, meaning that our memories of an event are often incomplete, as we only recall the important points. Reconstructive memory suggests that in the absence of all information, we fill in the gaps to make more sense of what happened. According to Bartlett, we do this using schemas. These are our previous knowledge and experience of a situation and we use this process to complete the memory. This means that our memories are a combination of specific traces encoded at the time of the event, along with our knowledge, expectations, beliefs and experiences of such an event.

Q2. ANSWER 

Q4. ANSWER
Evaluation of the MSM

Strengths:

- The WMM provides an explanation for parallel processing (i.e. where processes involved in a cognitive task occur at once), unlike Atkinson and Shiffrin’s MSM.

- A Shallice and Warrington (1974) case study reported that brain-damaged patient KF could recall verbal but not visual information immediately after its presentation, which supports the WMM’s claim that separate short-term stores manage short-term phonological and visual memories.

- The model was developed based on evidence from laboratory experiments, so confounding variables could be carefully controlled to produce reliable results (that can be replicated).

Weaknesses:

- Despite providing more detail of STM than the multi-store model, the WMM has been criticized for being too simplistic and vague, e.g. it is unclear what the central executive is, or its exact role in attention.

- Results from laboratory experiments researching the WMM will often have low ecological validity (i.e. may not relate to real life), as tasks such as repeating ‘the the the’ are arguably not representative of our everyday activities.

heart rate

breathing

sleep cycles

digestion

mood

concentration

appetite

muscle movement
SYNAPTIC TRANSMITTERS : 
Its role is to transfer information between neurons, or between neurons and other excitable cells, takes place at specialised junctions