• Early Awareness (1967-1985):

• To understand climate change.

• In 1967, the International Council for Science (ICSU) and WMO launched a program to study atmospheric behavior.

• By the mid-1980s, 1985 Villach Conference, brought scientists to discuss the urgent need for a coordinated response to climate change.

• The 1985 Villach meeting – ICSU, UNEP and WMO – joined forces to bring an issue onto the international policy agenda - the threat of anthropogenic climate change.

• Leading to the creation of the IPCC in 1988. Because of the recognition of the need for a formal assessment body to update scientific knowledge on climate change.

• UN Endorsement (1988): The establishment of the IPCC was officiated by the UN General Assembly in December 1988. Its initial mandate included preparing comprehensive reviews of the state of knowledge regarding climate change, its socio-economic impacts, and potential response strategies.

Since its inception, the IPCC has played a crucial role in shaping international climate agreements. Its findings have directly influenced significant treaties, including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol. The IPCC's assessments are integral to ongoing climate negotiations, providing a scientific basis for discussions and decisions

Working Group I: Scientific Assessment of Climate Change

• Concluded that emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, leading to additional warming of the Earth's surface.

• Predicted that under a "business as usual" scenario, global mean temperature would increase by about 0.3°C per decade during the 21st century.

• Judged that global mean surface air temperature had increased by 0.3 to 0.6°C over the last 100 years, consistent with climate model predictions

  
  

Working Group II: Impacts Assessment of Climate Change

• Assessed the potential impacts of climate change on various sectors and ecosystems.

Working Group III: The IPCC Response Strategies

• Focused on potential response strategies to mitigate and adapt to climate change.

The FAR played a decisive role in the creation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the key international treaty to reduce global warming and cope with the consequences of climate change (conducted Earth Summits to update report).

The contents in the Report includes:-

Chapter 1 - Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols

Chapter 2 - Radiative Forcing of Climate

Chapter 3 - Processes and Modelling

Chapter 4 - Validation of Climate Models

Chapter 5 - Equilibrium Climate Change - and its Implications for the Future

Chapter 6 - Time-Dependent Greenhouse-Gas-Induced Climate Change

Chapter 7 - Observed Climate Variations and Change

Chapter 8 - Detection of the Greenhouse Effect in the Observations

Chapter 9 - Sea Level Rise

Chapter 10 - Effects on Ecosystems

Refer : https://archive.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_ipcc_first_assessment_1990_wg1.shtml

Key Outcomes

The Earth Summit resulted in several significant agreements and declarations:

1. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development: This document outlines 27 principles intended to guide sustainable development worldwide, emphasizing the need for environmental protection and economic growth.

2. Agenda 21: A comprehensive plan of action for sustainable development, Agenda 21 addresses various sectors, including poverty alleviation, changing consumption patterns, and protecting the atmosphere.

3. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): This treaty aimed to combat climate change by stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. It laid the groundwork for future international climate agreements.

4. Convention on Biological Diversity: This treaty aimed to conserve biological diversity, promote sustainable use of its components, and ensure fair sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.

5. Statement of Principles for a Global Consensus on the Management, Conservation, and Sustainable Development of all Types of Forests: This document addressed the need for sustainable forest management and conservation practices.

Despite its ambitious goals, the outcomes of the summit have received mixed reviews over the years. Critics argue that while the summit set important precedents, the actual implementation of its agreements has been inconsistent, with many nations struggling to meet their commitments.

United Nations Framework Convention of Climate Change (UNFCCC)

Is an international environmental treaty to combat "dangerous human interference with the climate system" and stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. Key points about the UNFCCC established at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit:

• It was signed by 154 states at the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED).

• By 2022, the UNFCCC had 198 parties.

• Its supreme decision-making body, the Conference of the Parties (COP), meets annually to assess progress in dealing with climate change.

• The UNFCCC played a key role in diffusing several principles of environmental treaties, such as the precautionary principle, common but differentiated responsibilities, and the polluter pays principle.

• The UNFCCC was an important achievement of the 1992 Earth Summit that led to the later Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement.

The Earth Summit brought together heads of state, government officials, and thousands of NGO representatives to address the linkages between environment, economic development, and social issues

Objectives

To reduce greenhouse gas emissions to levels that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system, Specifically, it committed industrialized countries (referred to as Annex I countries) (Annex I countries include the 24 original OECD members, the European Union, and 14 countries with economies in transition.) to reduce their emissions of six greenhouse gases—carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF₆)—by an average of 5.2% below 1990 levels.

Principles of the Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol was based on the principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities," acknowledging that developed nations bear a greater historical responsibility for greenhouse gas emissions and therefore should take the lead in reducing them.

Key Take-aways from Kyoto Protocol

1. Binding Emission Reduction Targets

The Kyoto Protocol established legally binding commitments for industrialized countries (Annex I Parties) to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. The overall target was to cut emissions by an average of 5.2% below 1990 levels during the first commitment period from 2008 to 2012.

2. Common but Differentiated Responsibilities

The Protocol was based on the principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities," recognizing that developed countries have historically contributed more to greenhouse gas emissions and thus have a greater responsibility to reduce them. Developing countries, including major emitters like China and India, were not required to adhere to binding targets, which raised concerns about the Protocol's overall effectiveness in reducing global emissions.

3. Market-Based Mechanisms

To facilitate compliance with emission reduction targets, the Kyoto Protocol introduced several market-based mechanisms:

• Emissions Trading: Allowed countries with excess allowances to sell them to countries that were exceeding their targets.

• Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): Enabled developed countries to invest in emission reduction projects in developing countries and earn carbon credits.

• Joint Implementation (JI): Allowed developed countries to invest in emission reduction projects in other developed countries, also earning credits for the reductions achieved.

  
  

4. Limited Impact on Global Emissions

Despite achieving some success in reducing emissions among participating countries, the Kyoto Protocol did not significantly curb the overall rise in global greenhouse gas emissions. By 2012, global emissions had increased by 44% compared to 1997 levels, largely driven by emissions growth in developing nations that were not bound by the Protocol. This highlighted the limitations of the agreement in addressing the broader climate crisis.

5. Legacy and Transition to Future Agreements

While the Kyoto Protocol faced criticism for its effectiveness, it was a crucial step in international climate negotiations, laying the groundwork for future agreements, including the Paris Agreement in 2015. The Protocol demonstrated that a global consensus on climate action was possible, setting a precedent for future international cooperation on climate issues. Overall, the Kyoto Protocol represented a significant, albeit imperfect, effort to address climate change through international collaboration, establishing a framework for future climate negotiations.

Challenges
The United States, a major emitter, withdrew from the Protocol in 2001, arguing that it was unfair as it did not impose binding targets on developing nations. Additionally, while many Annex I countries complied with their targets, global emissions continued to rise, highlighting the limitations of the Protocol in achieving its objectives.

The main decisions at COP 7 included:

• The conference concluded with the adoption of the Marrakech Accords, which established the operational details for the Kyoto Protocol. This included decisions on international emissions trading, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and joint implementation among parties to the Protocol

• COP7 emphasized the need to support the least developed countries (LDCs) through the establishment of National Adaptation Programmes of Action(NAPAs). These programs were designed to address the urgent and immediate adaptation needs of LDCs in response to climate change impact

• A compliance regime that outlined consequences for failure to meet emissions targets but deferred to the parties to the Protocol, once it came into force, the decision on whether those consequences would be legally binding;

• Accounting procedures for the flexibility mechanisms;

• A decision to consider at COP 8 how to achieve a review of the adequacy of commitments that might lead to discussions on future commitments by developing countries.

The Bali Action Plan was a comprehensive framework aimed at addressing climate change through four main building blocks:-

1. Mitigation: It called for measurable, reportable, and verifiable commitments from developed countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and for developing countries to undertake nationally appropriate mitigation actions (NAMAs) supported by technology and financial assistance.

2. Adaptation: The plan emphasized the need for enhanced cooperation to implement adaptation measures, particularly for vulnerable countries. This included the establishment of National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) to address immediate adaptation needs.

3. Technology: The Action Plan promoted the transfer of environmentally sound technologies from developed to developing countries, focusing on removing barriers and providing financial incentives to facilitate this transition.

4. Financing: It highlighted the necessity of mobilizing financial resources to support climate action in developing countries, ensuring access to predictable and sustainable funding sources.

The Copenhagen Conference, held from December 7 to 18, 2009, aimed to finalize a new global climate agreement. Key outcomes included:

1. Copenhagen Accord: The conference resulted in the non-binding Copenhagen Accord, which recognized the need to limit global temperature rise to below 2 °C and included commitments from various countries to reduce emissions. However, the accord did not establish legally binding targets.

2. Financial Commitments: Developed countries pledged to provide $30 billion in fast-start financing for developing nations from 2010 to 2012, with a goal of mobilizing $100 billion annually by 2020 to support climate action in developing countries.

3. Monitoring and Reporting: The accord called for countries to submit their emissions reduction targets and to report on their progress, establishing a framework for transparency.

4. Mixed Reactions: The outcomes of the conference were met with disappointment by many, as the lack of legally binding commitments and concrete targets raised concerns about the effectiveness of the agreement in addressing climate change.

In summary, COP13 in Bali laid the groundwork for the negotiations that culminated in COP15 in Copenhagen.The Bali Roadmap provided a clear path forward, even though the final outcome in Copenhagen fell short of expectations.

1. The absence of a strong commitment from the United States, a major emitter, undermined the overall negotiations.

2. The ongoing global financial crisis 2008 created economic pressures on many countries

• Green Climate Fund: The conference established a framework for a Green Climate Fund aimed at mobilizing $100 billion annually to assist developing countries in combating climate change. However, the specifics of funding were not finalized.

• Adaptation Framework: The Cancun Adaptation Framework was created to enhance adaptive capacity in developing nations, alongside the establishment of an Adaptation Committee.

• Long-term Goals: The agreements recognized the need for deep cuts in global greenhouse gas emissions to limit temperature rise to below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels. It emphasized urgent action and a shift towards a low-carbon society.

The conference was seen as a recovery from the disappointing outcomes of the Copenhagen Conference in 2009, with nearly universal support for the agreements among participating nations

Held from November 28 to December 9, 2011, the Durban Conference built on the progress made in Cancun. Key outcomes included:

• Negotiations for a Legally Binding Agreement: The conference initiated negotiations for a new legally binding agreement that would encompass all countries, to be finalized by 2015 for implementation post-2020.

• Green Climate Fund Management: Durban advanced the operational framework for the Green Climate Fund, reinforcing commitments to support developing countries in adapting to climate impacts.

• Recognition of Urgency: While the conference was hailed as a success, many scientists and environmental groups expressed concern that the agreements were insufficient to prevent global warming beyond the critical 2 °C threshold, highlighting the need for more immediate and ambitious actions

Rio+20 focused on two main themes:

1. A Green Economy in the Context of Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication: This theme aimed to promote economic growth that is environmentally sustainable and inclusive, addressing the needs of the poor while safeguarding natural resources.

2. An Institutional Framework for Sustainable Development: This involved discussions on enhancing governance structures at all levels to better integrate economic, social, and environmental considerations into decision-making processes.

Summary of Rio+20 Outcomes and Global Warming

1. Commitment to Climate Action: The summit reaffirmed the need for urgent action against climate change in alignment with the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), emphasizing that countries should avoid unilateral measures that could impede sustainable development.

2. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Rio+20 established the SDGs, which guide global development efforts. While not specifically focused on climate change, several goals (such as affordable clean energy and climate action) are relevant to mitigating global warming.

3. Financial Commitments: The conference generated approximately $513 billion in financial commitments for sustainable development projects, which can support initiatives aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing climate resilience.

4. Voluntary Initiatives: The summit encouraged various stakeholders, including governments and businesses, to make voluntary commitments towards sustainability, some of which may address climate change.

5. Local Initiatives: The city of Rio de Janeiro launched its Low-Carbon City Program during the summit, focusing on reducing emissions through improved urban transport and waste management.

Main Objectives

1. Temperature Goals: The agreement sets a long-term goal to limit global temperature rise to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, with efforts to limit the increase to 1.5°C.

2. Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): Each country is required to outline its climate action plans, known as NDCs, which detail how they intend to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. These contributions are not legally binding but are expected to be progressively more ambitious over time.

3. Global Peaking of Emissions: The agreement calls for global greenhouse gas emissions to peak as soon as possible, with a goal of achieving net-zero emissions in the second half of the 21st century.

4. Climate Finance: Developed countries are encouraged to provide financial resources to assist developing nations in their climate mitigation and adaptation efforts, with a goal of mobilizing $100 billion annually by 2020.

5. Transparency and Accountability: The agreement establishes a framework for transparent reporting and monitoring of countries' emissions and progress towards their NDCs.

Key Outcomes from the Bonn Climate Conference

1. Focus on Just Transition Pathways: The IPCC Chair, Jim Skea, addressed the importance of just transition pathways in achieving the goals of the Paris Agreement, emphasizing equitable approaches to climate action.

2. Expert Dialogues: The conference included expert dialogues on critical topics such as children and climate change, and mountains and climate change, highlighting the need for targeted discussions on vulnerable populations and ecosystems.

3. Side Events: The IPCC hosted side events focused on the scientific foundations for the upcoming seventh assessment cycle, including discussions on methodologies for greenhouse gas inventories and the role of IPCC products in supporting the Enhanced Transparency Framework under the Paris Agreement.

4. Global Stocktake (GST) Implementation: The conference served as a platform for parties to discuss the implementation of the GST outcomes, which called for ambitious emission reduction targets. However, there were concerns about the slow progress and entrenched disagreements on how to proceed with the dialogue regarding the GST.

5. Lack of Progress on Key Issues: Many delegates expressed disappointment over the lack of substantial progress on topics such as the Global Goal on Adaptation, mitigation work programs, and the integration of gender considerations in climate discussions.

6. Preparations for Future Meetings: The conference set the stage for the next Conference of the Parties (COP) meeting in Baku, Azerbaijan, in November 2024, where further discussions on the GST and climate action will continue