Babylonian Empire: Large Mesopotamian empire founded by Hamarobi

The Code of Hammurabi: Collection of Babylonian laws; the first record of laws being written this way. Allowed anyone to view the laws.

Very literal punishment: "An eye for an eye," if you harm someone, you'd be harmed the same. However, it was not completely fair. Social classes still played a part, and if a higher class injured a lower class, they would not face as harsh consequences. It influenced many major laws.

Greek heroes- Greek culture is heavily based on epics and myths. One of the most famous Greek writers, Homer, wrote the "Iliad" and "The Odyssey"

Greek Polis- Greece was divided into city-states (Polis)

• Each had an acropolis (a fortified gathering for religious meetings and others)

• Citizens were heavily loyal to their Polis, which sometimes led to conflict

• A good bit of city-states were under a democracy(run by the people via elections), others were an oligarchy(run by small groups).

Greek had 2 main, very powerful city-states

Sparta-

• Strict, war-like society that was military-focused

• Had a caste system(social hierarchy)

• Military training for boys started at 7, and women were trained to complete household duties; education was strictly military-based

• State above people

• Sparta rejected the outside world and new ideas

Athens-

• A freer society compared to Sparta

• Military was not heavily emphasized, but still had a strong military

• One of the world's earliest democracies

• One of the earliest recorded constitutions

• Held Assemblies (large meetings where people could voice opinions to government leadership)

546 BCE- Persians conquer the Greek Polis of Ionia

-After being conquered, they fought back, but were heavily defeated by the Persians

490 BCE- Battle of Marathon

-The Persian navy was forced onto land and was suprise attacked by the Greeks, and they lost

480 BCE- Battle of Salamis

-Sent soldiers from land to the North and from water in the South

-Persians were defeated because Athens and Sparta worked together

Results:

• Athens became the most powerful Greek Polis

• Known as the "Age of Pericles"

• Created a "Direct Democracy" A system where people contribute directly to the government and make proceedings through mass meetings

• Athens kept slavery

• Women had few rights and had no say in government

431-405 BCE- The War

-Athens strong navy vs. Sparta strong army

-Athenians began crowding in the city to avoid the Spartans

-A plague broke out, killing 1/3 of the population

-Sparta defeated Athens and tore their city down

Results:

-Greek City-states fell and were very open to being attacked

- "If you cannot govern yourself, someone will do it for you"

-Towering structures like the Parthenon were mad

-Greece was known for its playwrights and drama

History:

-Herodotus, also known as the “father of history," actively sought out history and wrote it down

-Thucydides, a historian that based his writings only on fact and evidence and avoided storytelling/exaggeration

Medicine:

-Hippocrates, also known as the “father of medicine,” created a field of study specifically dedicated to medical care

Philosophy:

-Greek emphasis on education led to many questions, and developed to philosophy

Socrates:

-A Greek philosopher that challenged people to think for themselves

Socratic method:

-a question-answer teaching format that leads students to learn for themselves based on their own questioning/reasoning

-Socrates was executed by Athenian authorities as it was believed he was corrupting youth to challenge the government

Plato and Aristotle:

-Students of Socrates

-Made major contributions to fields of study such as government, biology, math, politics, etc.

-The Romans lost trust in kings and established a republic

• Republic: A system without a king that utilizes voting

  
  

-Early Rome had two social orders:

Patricians - Wealthy, land-owning, ruling class

Plebeians - farmers, merchants, lower/middle class citizens

-Men in both groups paid taxes, owed military service, and could vote

Twelve Tables - Roman law code that stood for centuries.

-Accused were deemed "innocent until proven guilty"

-Accused had an opportunity to defend themselves in court

-Plebeians became frustrated with the lack of equality and a lasting tension for several centuries.

-Plebeians were granted a governemnt power called "Tribune"

Tribune: could serve in Government and attend meetings; could not introduce legislation, only veto

Punic Wars (264 BCE - 146 BCE):

-Series of battles between Rome and Carthage

-Began with conflict over Sicily, and Rome won

-Carthage returned decades later under command of military leader Hannibal

-Hannibal had many victories in Rome but began losing men/supplies

-After attack, Romans destroyed the city and enslaved 50,000 inhabitants

-Ultimately, Rome won the Punic Wars and greatly increased the size of their empire; included a new territory called Africa

• Wealthy people used slave labor

  
  

-Two Plebeian tribunes tried to propose reforms and to incorporate more equality; they were later assassinated for this

Moving from Republic to Empire:

-Military generals began recruiting soldiers in exchange for land

-They were very loyal to the territory, not the government

Julius Caesar

-A respected and successful military leader

-Rose to power and, with a strong army, named himself dictator of Rome for life

-After gaining power, Caesar:

• Gave land back to poor farmers

• Increased number of citizens

• Grew Roman Senate to 900 members

  
  

-Caesar was assassinated by Senators who wanted a return to a republic

-Rome’s first “Emperor”

-Years of quarrelling between military generals resulted in Augustus (Julius Caesar’s grand-nephew) being named Roman Emperor in 27 BCE

-Augustus ended wars, gained control of the military, and promised power to senate

-Claimed to restore republic, but was an emperor

-Developed cult and ended republic

After:

-After Augustus, emperors became rulers who passed down the title to descendants

-As time passed, Emperors gave less and less political power to the Roman Senate

-Fighting in royal families was common, including murder to keep/obtain power

Pax Romana

-Series of 5 Emperors known as the “good emperors” that did many great things and strengthened architecture

Economy and Society:

-Rome became wealthy due to Farming

-However, there was a big gap in wealth between rich and poor

-The most common job in the Empire was farming

-Romans borrowed many Greek artistic shapes and forms

-Romans had amazing skill in the movement of water with aqueducts (artificial water channels)

Life in the Roman:

-Households were dominated by the father and made all significant decisions

-Women could not leave the home without someone and weren't allowed in politics

-Marriages were arranged, and usually occurred around age 12-14

Slavery and Slave Revolts:

-Slavery was most common in Rome in ancient society

-Slaves wasnt just labor; some became teachers, doctors, artists, and musicians

-Many came from conquered territories as prisoners

-Slave revolts then became common in Rome

-Fear was caused and resulted in worse treatment

Most Famous Revolt (73BCE):

-The slaves were led by Spartacus in this revolt

-70,000 slaves rose up and defeated 3 factions before being stopped, and 6,000 slaves were killed/crucified

Early Rome had many different religions and were open, but became more limited over time.

Judaism and Christianity (6BCE-27CE)

-Jews believe in a savior, or Mesiah.

-Jesus said he was the Messiah, and those who followed his teaching later made Christianity

-Jesus promoted belief in one god, honesty, good deeds, and peace to all.

-Rome saw him as a political rebel and executed him

-Christianity was subsequently banned

The Spread of Christianity:

-It gained popularity because it was focused on the person

-Mainly liked it because they felt included, and equal, even to higher classes

-Christianity was considered to be a threat to Rome, and they continued to execute followers

-Later used Christianity, and made it Rome's official leader

Organizing the Church:

-Religion spread quickly through the church and clergymen

-As it spread, leadership became more political, and the idea of a Pope was established.

-Monks grew the church larger; Monks are people who separate themselves from ordinary life and dedicate themself to God and spreading religion

Fall of Rome:

-While Christianity grew, Rome fell (300s CE)

-Rome’s fall was based on many factors: lack of organization, inequality amongst its people, weak leaders, and lack of government trust

-When Rome split, the East became the Byzantine Empire; the West was largely controlled by the Frankish Empire

The Frankish Empire (400s - 800s CE)

-The Franks controlled a lot of Western Europe and helped grow Christianity

-Its ruler, Charlemagne, was named Roman emperor; Rome had collapsed, but it showed the desire for Western Europe to somehow remain united under Christianity

The Byzantine Empire (330 - 1453 CE)

-When Rome collapsed in 300 CE, the Byzantine Empire took over Eastern Europe

Rule of Justinian (527 - 565 CE):

-Justinian conquered nearly all of what used to be the Roman Empire; this control slipped when he died

Justinian’s Code - Legal system created by Justinian by combining and simplifying Roman laws/statutes

-Different variations of this lasted nearly 1,000 years after Justinian died

-Byzantine rulers were seen as gods, and had a very close tie between government and religion

Constantinople - the capital of the Byzantines, was one of the wealthiest and most advanced cities in the world

The Great Schism (1053-1054)

(The split of the Christian Church)

-Both Byzantine rulers and Popes in the East and West argued that they were the only leaders of the Christian Church

-Eastern Europe became the Eastern Orthodox Church

-Western Europe became the Roman Catholic Church

-The split created confusion and frustration and laid the groundwork for future conflict between the groups

-Prior to Islam, the Arabian Peninsula lacked a centralized government.

-People began to unite through Islam

-The peninsula was a major hub for trade

-Most Arabs were polytheistic and believed in Allah, the supreme god

Muhhamed-

-Born in Mecca in the Arabian Peninsula

-Religious teacher who claimed to receive revelations from Allah

-Eventually, those became the Quran

-Attempted to spread Islam throughout Mecca, which resulted in execution

-Eventually became a leader and popular religious/political figure

-Early Muslims didn't see a difference between politics and religion, so it was essentially a government

-After his death, he was replaced by a caliph (Any leader who came after him)

-This began with family members, then branched off

Creating an Arab Empire-

-Muslims began claiming territory from Spain to India

-Many signed to fight because they were promised a good afterlife

-Conquered many Jewish and Christian communities

A Split in Islam-

-Unrest started to grow in the empire from unhappiness among Non-Muslims

-Result in a split in the Islamic religion

-Shia Muslims (Shiites) believed the caliph had to be a descendant of Muhammad’s

-Sunnis believed that any devout Muslim could be caliph

-The position of caliph no longer exists, but the split stayed

Life and Culture in the Islamic World-

Cultural Diffusion:

-The Muslim conquest caused conflict

-It promoted a lot of cultural growth via trade and cultural diffusion

-Bazaars (marketplaces in Islamic cities) were spread throughout the empire

Social Life-

-While the Quran says men/women are mostly equal, this did not happen in practice

-Social class was prominent in Muslim society

-Slavery was common (Non-Muslims being the slaves)

-Generally consisted of people captured during wars with other civilizations

Role of women-

-The Quran called for equality between men and women

-Women’s rights in society were very limited

-Women needed a male guardian, had their marriages arranged, and men paid a dowry (Gift to marry a daughter)

Cultural Advancements-

Math:

-Muslims simplified math and trade by creating the Arabic numerals (0-9) which is still used worldwide today

Astronomy:

-Muslims created observatories to view stars

-One of the first civilizations to believe the Earth was round

-Created the astrolabe (instrument used to determine location using the stars)

-Vital for exploration

Medicine:

-Muslims wrote a series of medical encyclopedias that were passed through generations and the world

-Major advancements in the contagiousness of diseases

-Medieval Europe” and the “Middle Ages” cover the time between the fall of the Roman Empire (400s CE) - Age of Exploration (1400s CE)

Feudal Europe-

-The “Dark Ages” also refers to this time period due to the collapse of the central government

-After the Frankish Empire fell (800s CE), no central government existed

-Europeans faced constant invasions from other regions

Feudalism-

-Resulted in Feudalism - Political/social order where people turned to regional kings/nobles for safety in exchange for work/labor

-This lasted hundreds of years; lack of trade, travel, and communication resulted in major regressions

-People rarely ever traveled more than a mile from their homes

-It was a time of fear, chaos, and uncertainty

-Day-to-day survival was the top priority

New technological advances-

-As conflicts stabilized, population grew

-Carruca (heavy, wheeled plow) made farming much more efficient

-Crop rotation - people learned that dividing fields between crops resulted in better soil and higher yields

-Trade - With stability came the ability to travel/trade more safely

-Upped cultural diffusion and technology advancements

-Cities were still under the control of kings/lords, but slowly new governments began growing

-Cities were walled to protect citizens

-Over time, feudal pyramids combined and came under the control of one king

-Often, kings had close ties to the Catholic Church and were viewed as higher than other people

-During feudalism, the Church gained a lot of power as many turned to religion

-The Roman-Catholic Church became the most powerful/wealthy entity of Europe

-Church beliefs became law

-Kings gained more power, and everyone began to fear that this power was too strong

The Return of European Kingdoms:

England-

In England, nobles/peasants became upset with the king’s absolute power

The Magna Carta (1215 CE)

-The “Great Charter” of rights, which King John was forced to sign

-Provided a list of rights/protections

-Intended to limit the power of kings

-In 1200s, England created Parliament

(representative government composed of Nobles and Bishops, 2 knights, and people from every county)

-Goal: discuss politics, assign taxes, and pass laws

France-

-A monarchy was being built in France

-France created a parliament with 3 Estates (Social Class)

-1st Estate (Clergy)

-2nd Estate (Nobility)

-3rd Estate (Peasants)

-Not all equal

Holy Roman Empire-

-Territory comprised primarily of Germany/Italy

-Constant fighting between Kings and Popes

Spain-

-Spain was primarily ruled by Muslim government

-In the 700s CE, Christian armies began claiming regions of Spain by overthrowing Muslim rulers

The Rise of the Catholic Church:

-During feudalism, a close relationship between non-religious rulers and Catholic clergy was developing

-Lay investiture (secular leaders choosing nominees to church offices) began during this time

-Popes would later condemn this practice

-Popes became the highest ranking, even above kings

-Popes could use an interdict (Pope’s decree to forbid church sacraments) to punish

-As the church grew to be incredibly powerful and wealthy, some began questioning the morals and corruption

Action Taken:

-To combat questioning, the church created a new punishable offense called heresy (the denial of church teachings)

-If someone was accused of heresy, they could be tried and punished by the Inquisition

-The Inquisition was meant to strike fear into those speaking out against the church

-Punishment could include a fine, extreme torture, or execution

-The bubonic plague started in Europe in the 1340s

-1/3 of Europe's population died to it

-Crowded cities suffered the most, with 50-60% of the population dying

-Plague spread first by fleas

-The Plague had major economic impacts (all negative)

-Social impacts (Hostility towards Jews increased because they blamed them for it)

-The Catholic Church reached the height of its power in 1200-1300s

The Great Schism of the Church:

-Popes began fighting for power/control

-The Catholic Church was split between two Popes

-Catholics chose sides in deciding which pope had ultimate authority

-Eventually, the Church agreed on one Pope and reunited

-Pope and Church lost significant power

Attempts for reform:

John Wycliffe-

-English preacher who said the Bible was the source of religious truth

-Translated Bible from Latin to English

-The Catholic Church was angered now that many people could read the Bible

-Church demanded Bible remain in Latin

John Hus:

-Czech preacher who called for re-focus on Biblical principles

-Went against the Pope

-Hus condemned the Church’s sale of indulgences (Purchasing sin forgiveness)

-Accused of heresy and burned at the stake

Wycliffe/Hus

-Remained as motivations for future reformers

-By the end of the Middle Ages, the Church still had great power, but political power was shrinking

-Series of battle between France/England over English territory in France

-Result: France wins and takes control of territory

Joan of Arc-

-French peasant woman who became a military general and led the French to many victories

-Captured by the English

-tortured and killed by the Inquisition

-Her crime was claiming to have visions of becoming a military general (Considered witchcraft)

-Her military skill helped turn the tide in favor of the French, and she became a martyr-

someone who dies for a cause

Long-term impacts:

-Changed how European wars were fought

-Many peasants got involved, not just knights

-The war continued to strengthen the hold that monarchies in Europe had over their territories

-Showcased the lengths people were willing to go to keep power

-An “awakening” of Europe after the Middle Ages

-Major change and development in art/literature/sculpture/etc.

-Challenged current ways of thinking

-Europeans began questioning religion and government leaders

The Renaissance in Italy:

-The Renaissance began in Italy

-This is because Italy is much more urban than the rest of Europe, and also a major trade hub

-Italy had no central ruler/government

-This meant it had independent city-states (Milan, Florence, Venice)

-These city-states competed to become superior societies

Ideas and Art of the Renaissance:

Niccolo Machiavelli-

-Wrote “The Prince”-

-a guidebook of sorts on how to govern/rule

-It said rulers had the right to use power and deceit to control people

Development of Secularism:

-Secularism had an emphasis on the individual things of the Renaissance

-Humanism -

-an artistic theme that focused on humans rather than divine or supernatural matters

-Lots of new fields of education grew from this idea (grammar, rhetoric, poetry, philosophy, history)

-This promoted education further and vernacular writing continued to become more common

Education

-Schools and universities became less focused on religion and increasingly secular

Further Advancements:

Johannes Gutenberg

-Invented the printing press in the 1440s

-Impacted social class by closing the gap between the rich and the poor

-Widely known for making the “Gutenberg Bible” (in Latin, the vernacular);

-Gutenberg also used the press to mass print indulgences

-This invention began the idea that machines might be able to do what humans do, but better and faster

Art Techniques:

-Perspective- artistic techniques used to give 3D depth to 2D shapes and surfaces

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519):

Mona Lisa

Last Supper

Michelangelo (1475-1564):

David

La Pieta

Sistine Chapel