• http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2240019
  
• http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/clo.2004.6.369
  
• http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1586/erm.09.53#aHR0cDovL3d3dy50YW5kZm9ubGluZS5jb20vZG9pL3BkZi8xMC4xNTg2L2VybS4wOS41M0BAQDA=
  
• http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleid=1136958
  
• Martin J.F.; Stem cells and repair of the heart. Lancet. 364 2004:183-192.
  
• Couzin J., Vogel G.; Cell therapy. Renovating the heart. Science. 304 2004:192-194.
  
• youtube.com

1)https://youtu.be/u4vhdZqdezY

2)https://www.google.co.in/search?q=old+trees&tbm=isch&tbs=simg:CAQSjAEaiQELEKjU2AQaAggADAsQsIynCBpiCmAIAxIoyxWoFcoV-grrCqkVrRWTC6oVwxXKKKw3ozfnKKMq5SHkKMkopze1LRowEGWkD-FTEU8x8j86pGCnF7-bZFxpqrcdSmVLpGeYb02hs-j-QWgtAymKgQ9786ILIAIMCxCOrv4IGgoKCAgBEgTgwbKbDA&sa=X&ved=0CBkQwg4oAGoVChMIhPXvo6uzyAIVQR2OCh17DwDl&biw=1366&bih=667#imgrc=tMtVwVSnzNh4dM%3A

3)http://nopr.niscair.res.in/handle/123456789/19096

4)http://www.bits-pilani.ac.in/hyderabad/reportsAndPublications

5)http://nopr.niscair.res.in/

6)https://en.wikipedia.org

7)www.shutterstock.com

DE-EXTINCTION:THE ROLE OF GENETIC MODIFICATION

Genetic modification to bring back extinct species.

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/09/150920-book-talk-simon-worrall-genetic-engineering-passenger-pigeon-resurrection-science-neanderthals/

http://longnow.org/revive/

What further developments can be expected in the area of GMOs?

Future GM organisms are likely to include plants with improved resistance against plant disease or drought, crops with increased nutrient levels, fish species with enhanced growth characteristics. For non-food use, they may include plants or animals producing pharmaceutically important proteins such as new vaccines.

RISKS TO THE ENVIRONMENT AND SUGGESTIONS TO COUNTER THEMIssues of concern to the environment include: the capability of the GMO to escape and potentially introduce the engineered genes into wild populations; the persistence of the gene after the GMO has been harvested; the susceptibility of non-target organisms (e.g. insects which are not pests) to the gene product; the stability of the gene; the reduction in the spectrum of other plants including loss of biodiversity; and increased use of chemicals in agriculture. The environmental safety aspects of GM crops vary considerably according to local conditions.

Environmental risk assessments can be performed for better results. 

How is a risk assessment for the environment performed?

Environmental risk assessments cover both the GMO concerned and the potential receiving environment. The assessment process includes evaluation of the characteristics of the GMO and its effect and stability in the environment, combined with ecological characteristics of the environment in which the introduction will take place. The assessment also includes unintended effects which could result from the insertion of the new gene.

• Should the modification of human genes be pursued?
  

AGRICULTURE

MEDICINES

DISEASE TREATMENT

PEST RESISTANCE

PRODUCTION

As it is already clear, the topic of my discussion suggests by itself that it presents the the manner in which a GMO affects the environment. The results of this feild of research can be used in :

1. Closing in on the most efficient and eco friendly way of genetic modification

2.Preparing and dealing with the biological dangers that may arise due to subjugation of GMO's to the environmnt

Suggestions:

Genetic modification is a process that should not be rushed with since it can have catastrophic impacts on the environment. Intense research and precaution needs to be undertaken before actual GMO production

Moreover genetic modification becomes increasingly difficult as we move from a low order species like bacteria to high level organisms like humans.Thus it is necessary that before moving to genetic modification in high level organisms ,proper equipment should be made available.

• What is a Genetically Modified Organism?

A genetically modified organism (GMO), also known as a transgenic organism, is any organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. GMOs are the source of medicines and genetically modified foods and are also widely used in scientific research and to produce other goods.

• How can genetic engineering transfer characteristics from one species to another?

Genetic engineering differs from conventional plant breeding. In conventional plant breeding half of the genes of an individual come from each parent, whereas in genetic engineering one or a few specially selected genes are added to the plant genome. Moreover, conventional plant breeding can only combine closely related plants. Genetic engineering permits the transfer of genes between organisms that are not normally able to cross breed because they are not genetically compatible. The transferred genes are called trans genes. They can come from another plant species, or even from a completely different organism (e.g., bacterial genes). These trans genes are then replicated and inherited in the same way as natural plant genes. Genetic engineering of plants usually makes use of a type of bacteria which has the natural ability to transfer DNA to some plants.

What are public attitudes toward animal use, and more specifically the use of animals in research?

TARGET AUDIENCE:

1)VEGETARIANS: 

INFERENCE:

Vegetarians have been associated with lower acceptance of the use of animals in research compared to non-vegetarians. Vegetarians are related to value orientations such as an increase in altruistic values and a decrease in traditional values. Vegetarianism is an action or behaviour that results from a particular attitude toward animals. This attitude may be generalized into a broader concern with animal rights, protection or welfare, due to underlying beliefs, meaning that vegetarian individuals are more likely to oppose the use of animals in research.

2)RURAL versus URBAN PEOPLE:

INFERENCE:

Survey has shown that people with a rural background have a greater acceptance of animal use than urban people, and greater support for animal experimentation. In developed countries urban people may never come into contact with the animals they eat; instead, animals are more likely to be companions and part of the family. Perhaps for this reason, urban residence has been found to be related to greater concern for animal well-being.

1)'no,unless'-principle-Biological activities with animals are to be prohibited by the government unless the aim is so important that the violation of these values is overruled

2)consequentialist-utilitarian approach-the more suffering is involved,the more important the goal must be.

3)anthropocentric:regarding humankind as the central or most important element of existence, especially as opposed to God or animal

4)prima facie:based on the first impression; accepted as correct until proved otherwise.

5)moratorium:a temporary prohibition of an activity

6)dichotomy:a division or contrast between two things that are or are represented as being opposed or entirely different

Tannins- it is an astringent, bitter plant polyphenolic compound that binds to and precipitates proteins and various other organic compounds including amino acids and alkaloids

Phytochemistry- it is in the strict sense of the word the study of Phytochemicals. These are chemicals derived from plants

Quercetin- it is a flavonol found in many fruits, vegetables, leaves and grains. It can be used as an ingredient in supplements, beverages, or food

(This is how I went about collecting the data for this discussion)

Look up for the above cited journal from here:

http://www.jstor.org/stable/40928228?Search=yes&resultItemClick=true&searchText=How&searchText=genetically&searchText=modified&searchText=trees&searchText=affect&searchText=aquatic&searchText=ecosystem&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3DHow%2Bgenetically%2Bmodified%2Btrees%2Baffect%2Baquatic%2Becosystem%26amp%3Bprq%3Dcryptography%26amp%3Bgroup%3Dnone%26amp%3Bfc%3Doff%26amp%3Bhp%3D25%26amp%3Bacc%3Don%26amp%3Bso%3Drel%26amp%3Bwc%3Don

I came across this journal while scouring the the website www.jstor.org

It fascinated me and I looked around for more when i found this presentation file which explained in a layman's language the very basics of this topic:

http://www.slideshare.net/jeffrey25/genetically-modified-organisms-5161789

and finally for a visual explanation ,I took up:

Target Audience : environment enthusiasts, forest departments, section of the general public related to the ecosystems in which the GMO is subjected to.

1. Effects of Genetic modifications are restricted to the organism undergoing modifications only or its immediate surrounding only. True or false? Comment.

2. Is Genetic modification actually a safe process?How wrong can it go?

3. Are we ready for the next big leap - Human Genetic Modification?

• cardiovascular medicine
  
• tissue engineering
  
• allogenic transplantation
  
• Research
• Cancer diagnosis
• Gene Therapy
• Curing diseases
• Here is an example of genetic modification of stem cells to cure a disease.

Cardiomyocytes:

Cardiac muscle cells or cardiomyocytes (also known as myocardiocytes or cardiac myocytes) are the muscle cells (myocytes) that make up the cardiac muscle.

Fibrolasts:a cell in connective tissue which produces collagen and other fibres.

Arrythmias:a condition in which the heart beats with an irregular or abnormal rhythm.

Myocardium:the muscular tissue of the heart.

Mesenchymal Stem Cells(MSCs):

Mesenchymal stem cells, or MSCs, are multipotent stromal cells that can differentiate into a variety of cell types, including: osteoblasts (bone cells), chondrocytes (cartilage cells), myocytes (muscle cells) and adipocytes (fat cells).

Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor(VEGF):

It is a signal protein produced by cells that stimulates vasculogenesis and angiogenesis.

Fibronectin:

These issues need to be considered by all stakeholders, including veterinarians, to ensure that all parties are aware of the ethical issues at stake and can make a valid contribution to the current debate regarding the creation and use of genetically engineered animals.Veterinarians can play an important role in carrying out such monitoring, especially in the research setting when new genetically engineered animal strains are being developed.

Research

Manufacturing

Medicine

Gene therapy

Agriculture

Genetic Modifications in organisms, as of today is not something uncommon or unheard of . It is no longer some far fetched futuristic concept but something that is very much real. From the Reference papers cited above I concluded that genetic modifications has fair share of benefits as well as disadvantages as Genetic Modification does not the Genetically Modified Organism(GMO) ONLY BUT also the ecosystem in which the organism thrives.

Mutation in the Genetically Modified Trees can be induced in order to improve the quality of pulp obtained from them. They an also be used to cause the GMO reduce the Carbon Dioxide emissions in order to control global warming or create immunity against various hereditary/infectious diseases.

Genetic Modification may be applied to increase the capabilities of an organism,however there is always room for error,a large one at that, and thus introduce some undesired changes in the GMO . Now these changes can have drastic outcomes on the ecosystem to which the GMO is subjected to.For example taking the case when mutation is caused in GMO to produce better quality pulp, the lignin content in the trees is increased artificially.But this poses an environmental threat as it causes a very steep decrease in the rate of decomposition of the leaf litters produced by these GMO when introduced in an aquatic ecosystem. The slowed decomposition rate may cause blockage off the flow in the aquatic ecosystem or even loss of life in the aquatic ecosystem.The reason for this decreased rate of decomposition has been identified as a flavonoid compound tannin.Moreover the introduction of GM in trees also leads to decrease in the species of various insects due to change in leaf and bark compositions.And it dos not need to be specified the importance of the insect species in the survival of various ecosystems.

Thus concluding, it can be said that Genetic Modification is a benefit that we reap at a price as it is potentially lethal to the environment if not practiced at controlled pace.

Why I took up this topic for discussion?

Well, Genetic Modification is Holy Grail of the human race's future.Thus this topic interested me.However what specifically peaked my interested was what would be the effects of Genetic modification on the environment as ,it needs to be ascertained that we are not messing with the laws of nature and the natural flow of things.

Why this field of research should be taken up so seriously?

It is always better to be prepared for the future than regret later on wards for not properly handling the situation at hand. Since Genetic modification ,if not properly controlled can lead to catastrophic results,it will always be one of our top priorities to evaluate what effects a GMO may have on the surrounding environment and life forms.

What are the possible expansion areas of this field of research?

Every branch of science dealing with genetic modification has the scope for incorporating this division of reasearch for determining the after effects of a GMO on the ecosystem where it is placed

My reference paper is published in

Oxford University Press

The reference link:

http://www.jstor.org/stable/27903477

The auther of this paper is

Henk Verhoog

Biological activities with animals are to be prohibited by the government unless the aim is so important that the violation of these values is overruled. This is the 'no,unless' policy defined by Brom and Schroten. 
In the law a number of goals are mentioned which legitimate the use of animals. So we could say that this law endorses a  'yes,but'-approach. It says yes to animal experimentation for broadly specified goals,but it imposes a number of restrictions when comes to experiments involving pain.
Production of transgenic animals by crossing species-barriers violates the nature and integrity of the animals involved.
Reasoning almost naturally leads to the view that science and ethics are two totally different fields of thinking which cannot be reconciled with each other. The present situation in biotechnology seems to be that,in scientific community there are strong reasons to keep ethics out,whereas there are equally strong public reasons to bring ethics in,based on concern about social and ethical impacts of genetic engineering. As a moral agent each individual should function in larger social frameworks. Wanting to separate science from ethics as two independent spheres of life would be inhuman. The life-world ,the world which is shaped by our values,comes first ,and although scientific theories about reality may not contain normative statements, this doesn't mean they are not ,in some way or the other, related to contextual values.

1)monist.oxfordjournals.org/content/monist/79/2/247.full.pdf

2)www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov › NCBI › Literature › PubMed Central (PMC)

3)International Encyclopedia of Environmental Politics by:
John Barry, ‎E. Gene Frankland

Originally published: January 1, 2001

Publication:Hoboken : Taylor and Francis

City of publication: london

Edision : 2014

4)www.jstor.org/stable/27903477

5)https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N-48RVaqZck

6)https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cN1w7EionA4

7)The Ethics of Animal Research: Exploring the Controversy

Edited by Jeremy R. Garrett

Published by: The MIT Press

http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt5hhc1z

As scientists have sequenced the genomes of domestic animals, more is known about genes and the traits that they control.  By finding genes that control beneficial traits, we are able to precisely introduce those genes into another animal’s genome, so the GE animal will possess that trait.  

One example is the Enviro-Pig™.  Through genetic engineering, this animal emits 30 to 60 percent less phosphorus than traditional pigs fed the same conventional diet.  This lessens livestock’s impact in the environment

Genetic engineering differs from conventional plant breeding. In conventional plant breeding half of the genes of an individual come from each parent, whereas in genetic engineering one or a few specially selected genes are added to the plant genome.

Moreover, conventional plant breeding can only combine closely related plants. Genetic engineering permits the transfer of genes between organisms that are not normally able to cross breed because they are not genetically compatible. The transferred genes are called trans genes. They can come from another plant species, or even from a completely different organism (e.g., bacterial genes). These trans genes are then replicated and inherited in the same way as natural plant genes.

Genetic engineering of plants usually makes use of a type of bacteria which has the natural ability to transfer DNA to some plants.

What is your area of interest under this topic?

The area that interested me the most was the fact that biotechnology can be used to save trees and also improve their various qualities just by bringing some genetic changes in them.

When did  genetic transformation to tree biotechnology be used in geology?

Such advanced applications have been developed in the past decade and new advancements are being made at a brisk rate.

Who are the authors of your reference article?

The authors are:

Khurana, Paramjit
Khurana, Jigyasa.hh

Where apart from the areas mentioned by you can genetics transformation be used?

Genetic transformation can also be used on various living beings in order to enhance their various potentials.

The authors of journal paper references:

• E. Petter Axelsson

• Joakim Hjältén

• Carri J. LeRoy

• Riitta Julkunen-Tiitto

• Anders Wennström

• Gilles Pilate

My reference paper is published in the NISCAIR-CSIR, India,( IJEB Vol.37(07) [July 1999])

The reference link:

http://nopr.niscair.res.in/handle/123456789/19096

The authors of this paper are:

Khurana, Paramjit
Khurana, Jigyasa.hh