According to research, the idea of being a good sport revolves around ethics and how an individual should hold the core values of honesty and justice. (Lumpkin, Stoll & Beller, 2002) These values are shared with the concept of sportsmanship. It is important to recognise the term ‘spirit of the game’ as this refers to competitive sport being more than just winning.

In some cases, it is easier to describe unsporting behaviour. Immediately, the most obvious case of unsporting behaviour is rule breaking to gain a competitive advantage. (Abad, 2010) In football, this could be the committing of a foul to prevent a goal scoring opportunity. However, there are cases where unsporting behaviour is demonstrated, and no rules are broken. Keeping to the sport of football, an example of this could taking advantage of the overload in players when an opposition player has gone down injured. This doesn’t break the rules, but a competitive advantage is gained. In the sporting world, this is deemed as gamesmanship. (Howe, 2004) The topic of gamesmanship is controversial, due to no rules being broken however, amongst professionals this is frowned upon. The final case of unsporting behaviour is etiquette such as not shaking hands or a lack of humility. As a developing athlete, children need to learn to lose due to the competitive nature of sports. This comes from good coach practice.

From the start of a child’s athletic development, coaches should make sportsmanship a staple of all training sessions and competitions. Football as a sport has a variety of sources that have the potential to affect the way a child behaves within the sporting environment such as, media and role models. This only makes parents and coaches input more important. Arthur-Banning (2009) discusses how parents’ attitude and behaviour towards sports has a direct link to how a child decides to act. Typically, the child perceives their parents as role models and therefore are increasing likely to imitate their actions. This links to the social learning theory that suggests parents and coaches can instil the concept of sportsmanship in children through observational learning and social reinforcement. (Bandura 1977) The most common form of social reinforcement from a coach is verbal encourage meant but non-verbal cues such as a thumbs up are also beneficial. The research further discusses the positive impact of rewarding when displaying the desired characteristics. Strong links can be made to operant conditioning. (Skinner, B. F., 1971)

This links to my coach philosophy of displaying professionalism, both on and off the pitch. Taylor and Garratt (2010) discuss how an element of being professional is sportsmanship and winning in the fairest of circumstances. This is initiated from early involvement in the game, beginning with the learning of rules. As mentioned, rule breaking is the most obvious form of unsporting behaviours and can stem from poor coaching practice. The aim for me as a coach is to develop ethically minded athletes that use their talent and developed athletic ability to achieve success in sport, whether that is as a team or as an individual. In my context of community coaching, for me gamesmanship is never the answer, but I understand that there is argument for it higher up the football pyramid. Not only does gamesmanship stray away from being a good sport, but it also strays away from the reason the children are taking part in this level of football. At the age of 8 and 9, sport is about development not results.  Weiler and Ahmed (2023) further support this, suggesting that the goal for children outside of academies should be to promote a lifelong career in sport, mentioning the Football Associations football for all campaign.

WHAT IS A GROWTH MINDSET?

As of late, psychological development has been of growing interest, specifically fixed and growth mindsets. The idea of a growth mindset stems from the work of Dweck, C. S. (2006) who suggests that it is one’s belief that through effort and learning their abilities and intelligence can be developed. From personal experiences within coaching practice, athletes with a growth mindset, will typically look to take on challenges perhaps stepping outside their comfort zone in their strive for sporting excellence.

HOW DOES A GROWTH MINDSET BENEFIT THE ATHLETE?

Athletes with a growth mindset, will actively look to learn and improve. Unlike athletes with a fixed mindset, they are open to feedback and often display proactive signs of learning, sometimes in the form of questioning. One of the benefits I have noticed within my coaching environment is that those who are involved in the learning process develop improved levels of resilience. Interestingly, this is theoretically underpinned by Yeager and Dweck (2012) who explore the impact of mindset on students’ resilience. Although this study is based on students rather than athletes, an argument can be made for its application in this context due to the similar approaches to learning. Resilience has proven to be an essential part of development, allowing athletes to navigate important challenges and obstacles preventing them from achieving their goals.

My approach to coaching is heavily influenced by Chow et al. (2007) and their theory around non-linear pedagogy. This approach sees the coach, increase the difficulty of practice as the athletes improve, highlighting the importance for instilling growth mindsets and resilience within the player group. Linking to this is player empowerment. Based off Collins and MacNamara (2017) it is understood that talent development is a process, and success isn’t likely to happen without overcoming challenges. This is something I am yet to discuss within my environment; however, this research has brought to my attention the value it holds in the empowerment process. A strategy that appeals to me as a coach is through short- and long-term goals, as well as emphasis on praise, specifically targeted at effort levels.

HOW HAVE I ATTEMPTED TO DEVELOP THE GROWTH MINDSET WITHIN THE TEAM?

During my time with the team, a goal of mine was to create an environment primed for developing good athletes. Unaware of its impact on mindset at the time, creating a supportive environment where athletes felt comfortable to fail was at the top of my list. Reflection upon this decision, has identified the increased positives attached to this approach and its role in psychological development alongside that of physical.

Alongside my practice, I use verbal praise to indicate that an athlete has done well, however, Collins and MacNamara (2017) suggest that coaches should be careful in how they choose to address success to the players. The research highlights the risks of praising athletes based on how talented they are, suggesting it can lead to a fixed mindset. The solution to this is to ensure the coach identifies the levels of effort the athlete is applying, a variable that aims at fostering a growth mindset. For example, this approach encourages young athletes to apply effort as they associate it with improving.

HOW DOES SELF REGULATION LINK TO A GROWTH MINDSET?

Self-regulation is the ability to control or manage thoughts, feelings and emotions in order to achieve one’s goals. (Zimmerman, 2000) The theory of self-regulation aims to help youth athletes make the most out of their opportunities and suggests that they are actively involved in their own learning process. My context of U9 football, doesn’t focus on developing self-regulation skills but accept they are a prerequisite for development of sport specific skills. This provides an explanation for the variety in ability to learn and levels on the performance ladder. Supporting this is research from Collins and MacNamara (2017) who suggest those who lack self-regulation skills are unlikely to reach the top of the performance ladder and identify the need for early exposure to sport and coaches. Having acquired this team for the season, I have a gap in knowledge, unaware of the players’ past experiences and the age at which they entered the sport. The role of good coaches cannot be overlooked, as they are responsible for setting of goals and management of development environment.

An issue that I have encountered is that during this stage of athlete development, coaches and parents are over supportive and halt the progression of self-regulatory skills. Although in the present it appears to be achieving success, it is likely that the player will struggle to overcome challenges when faced with an obstacle. Therefore, session plans should be carefully constructed to mitigate this from an early age. Further to this, although as a coach it is difficult, especially in my context of grassroots sport, it’s important to understand the impact the child’s environment away from the pitch is having on their development, school and home. This links to Felfe et al. (2016) and their research around understanding the child. Ideally, away from the pitch, these players are being task with ordinary activities and being exposed to appropriate behaviours by their parents are teachers.

In this blog, I will be exploring the different theories of learning, linking them to my coaching philosophy and how they become apparent through my coaching style. The theories of learning are why we do what we do, referring to them as macro and meso in scale, indicating the comprehensive approaches.

Awareness of the theory underpinning my decision making has always been a topic of intertest. Lyle and Cushion (2016) discuss how coach practice is often based on personal experiences and in relation to the coaches’ beliefs on how children learn. Reflection upon my coaching journey to date has highlighted the change in views on the learning process. My initial view on believing that success was the most obvious sign of learning taking place has changed drastically, adopting an approach where athletes are comfortable in failing.

This leads us onto the topic of epistemology, which targets the concept of knowledge and its origins. Grecic and Collins (2013) highlight the importance of epistemology in logical decision-making frameworks, suggesting it can aid the coach’s evaluation and planning. From a personal point of view, I believe experts possess the knowledge for young athletes to learn from, which is evident in my guided discovery style approach to coaching. (Mosston, M., & Ashworth, S., 1986) However, it’s necessary to recognise the five strands of knowledge are continuum based indicating a scale rather than a definitive selection.

BEHAVIOURISM

Often referred to as ‘conventional’ coaching, behaviourism removes the idea of free will. (Watson & Kimble, 2017) As a concept, it suggests that everyone can be trained through conditioning, aiming to link the relationship between behaviour and consequence. (Carlson & Buckist 1997) Referring back to epistemology, typically coaches who apply this approach will share beliefs that knowledge is passed down from expert to the participant and that their input in the learning process is strictly passive. From my understanding, a behaviourist’s coaching strategy would see a goal orientated approach supported by a structured environment, with outlined expectations.

Within the theory of behaviourism there is two aspects known as, classical and operant conditioning.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Classical conditioning introduces the idea of stimulus and response, suggesting that conditioning can lead to a predicted outcome. (Clark, 2004) From a young age, I introduced my athletes to the whistle. Reflection upon this, indicates an element of classical conditioning, as they now display signs of a response when the whistle is blown during competitive fixtures. This is underpinned by the research of Ivan Pavlov and their study into how a dog can be conditioned to salivate when the stimulus of a bell was applied. This strategy demonstrates excellent associative learning between a stimulus and behaviour. (Woodruff-Pak, 1997) An issue that I have identified to this approach is its limited scope, and how for complex responses, it may prove less effective.

OPERANT CONDITIONING

The concept of operant conditioning was developed by Skinner (1963) who suggested the idea that behaviours can be influenced by the consequences that follow them. They were particularly fascinated by reinforcement and punishment and the impact they can have on behaviour. Throughout coaching sessions, I praise participants for aspects they have done well in, an example of positive reinforcement. This aligns with B.F. Skinners theory around reinforcement however, an issue I have identified is that this could lead to a fixed mindset as mentioned in my previous blog. Based on this, I believe the coach needs to articulate their vocabulary to praise effort over talent. Although not my preferred choice, I understand the application of negative reinforcement can be effective, removing something the athlete sees as unpleasant, increasing the likelihood of the behaviour reoccurring.

As a coach, I demonstrate the idea of punishment in response to poor behaviour, reducing the time for a game at the end of training. As suggested by Leeder (2022) this is effective as it is something that my players see as valuable to them, encouraging desired behaviours. Although, unfavourable to me, I understand the reasoning behind presenting the athletes with the idea of running or similar due to disruptive behaviour. This is a prime example of presentation punishment.

CONTRUCTIVISM

Constructivism is the opposite of behaviourism and centres the individual at the heart of their own learning, developing their own understanding. (Light & Wallian, 2008) The aim of this approach sees learners build up their own knowledge based upon their involvement in learning. Newman (1994) explores the idea of a constructivist approach, highlighting the improved benefits when the teaching is interactive. As my knowledge around how learning takes place has developed, my coaching practice has moved closer to towards a participant centred approach. My initial thoughts around this are that novice coaches are likely to display behaviourist characteristics whereas those with greater understanding an experience may choose to adopt a more constructivist approach. However, I understand this heavily relies on a coach’s personal epistemology and their thoughts on how learning happens.

Breaking this down, there is two aspects, cognitive and social constructivism.

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM

Unlike a behaviourist strategy, constructivism encourages an individual’s social interactions, deeming collaboration a crucial step in the learning process. For this reason, this theory of learning is applied more commonly in team sports. Saleem et al. (2021) supports the idea of social constructivism, exploring the positives in knowledge exchange and different interpretations in the process of learning. As a coach, I do not fully commit myself to a social led approach, yet display elements, encouraging group collaboration. Typically, this includes challenging participants to come up with a group strategy to overcome a task, leading to some unique solutions. Lave & Wenger (1991) indicate the desire for a coach to view learning as multidirectional and remove the sense of hierarchy, placing similar importance on the role of both parties.

COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM

Cognitive constructivism emphasises the psychological process involved in the learning process. An element of this requires the coach to understand pre-existing knowledge the learner is likely to arrive to the session with. (Piaget, 1952) Throughout my sessions, this has been apparent, using my prior knowledge on players to aid their learning. For example, using a player’s favourite team or player to provide an analogy. The role of the coach in this theory of learning is to develop practice that challenges player cognitively to facilitate cognitive development encouraging them to think critically. Piaget (1952) a prolific researcher into constructivism, discusses the core cognitive developmental stages. Based on this, my players would be situated with the concrete operational stage, which suggests they have the ability to develop logical thinking skills but only when faced with concrete situations.  

Overall, the current approach for me as a coach leans heavily on the aspects of constructivism. This aligns with my views on how learning happens, actively involving the learner in the process. My epistemological view on knowledge is certainly situated in between the expert and learner on the continuum.

Across sport, nutrition has demonstrated the positive impact it can have on numerous factors leading to improved performance. The application of nutrition among elite athletes is evident, with professional football clubs employing specialists. Drewnowski (2010) investigates the benefits of a ‘nutrient rich’ diet, suggesting it can facilitate the maintaining of complete psychological and physical well-being. This only reinforces the need for a balanced diet, especially throughout the early developmental stages in a child’s life. An issue that has come to my attention is the misinformation around nutrition that is being passed onto youth players.

Is it right that within my context of grassroots football, coaches are prescribing nutritional advice to players?

Cockburn et al. (2014) establishes a direct link between optimal nutrition and peak performance levels, highlighting how it benefits recovery, hydration and the reduction in illnesses. Interestingly, they further explore the nutritional knowledge of UK coaches, concluding that many prescribe advice to their athletes with minimal subject knowledge. As a grassroots coach, the club doesn’t have a nutritionist which leads to many parents and players questioning myself for advice. Being self-aware, I understand my knowledge is sparce, which leads me to provide general information such as the importance of a balanced diet and staying hydrated. Therefore, perhaps basic nutritional knowledge needs to be brought into coaching qualifications due to the increased demand on coaches to provide information on the topic.

Supplements are becoming increasingly popular in sports performance, seeing many athletes consuming additional nutrients daily. At the elite level of sport, margins between success and defeat are slim, causing many athletes to seek out an opportunity to gain an advantage over their competitors. (Garthe & Maughan, 2018) However, the use in youth sports raises concerns over whether this is safe and morally correct. Due to the fine line between legal and illegal supplements, I would never choose to recommend them to one of my athletes. Further to this, a developing athlete should be getting the required nutrients from a well-balanced diet, eliminating the need to consider supplement use. (Maughan & Shirreffs, 2011)

Sleep is an essential part of life, which nutrients can heavily impact. Peuhkuri et al. (2012) investigates the correlation between diet and sleep, identifying that those who sleep less are likely to consume energy-rich food alongside fewer vegetables and irregular eating schedules. This links back to the importance of a balanced diet in sports performance. From my understanding, lack of sleep was directly linked to decreased performance levels. However, Pilcher and Huffcutt (1996) state that there is no evidence to suggest that cognitive or motor performance is affected by sleep deprivation and that is more likely to impact the athlete’s mood. In a similar situation to delivering nutritional information, as a coach I typically only suggest general factors such as the recommended amount of sleep as again it is an area where I lack knowledge.

It's important as a coach to understand where I am lacking knowledge to underpin my responses, only providing correct information to prevent any misconceptions and misunderstanding. My context doesn’t require any further knowledge on these areas, however, as previously stated I think it would benefit us all if the level 2 or 3 qualifications introduced us to some basic knowledge around these areas, due to the increased demand. Although basic information is valuable, I would argue that it is not the role of the coach to give in depth advice on these areas and that if players are wanting advice they should seek the help of a professional.

Among professionals, the subject of coach knowledge and the development of expertise is a highly debated topic, with 27 different definitions currently accepted. (Nash et al., 2012) Within this blog, I aim to reflect on my coaching journey to date, including potential steps forward for my personal development.

EFFECTIVE COACHING?

As we will discuss throughout this blog entry, effective coaching balances on a combination of inter and intrapersonal knowledge applied through practice to develop competency within athletes. (Gilbert & Côté, 2013b) Due to the plethora of contexts I work in, it is necessary that as a coach I am able to adapt and meet the needs for the participants.

An element of interpersonal knowledge is having the ability to adapt to the social situation and display empathy, which is a crucial part of my job when working with mental health and disability groups. Quick and Macik-Frey (2007) support this discussing the ability to foster better coach-athlete relationships using implicit interpersonal skills. This hints at my effectiveness, aiming to achieve the intended outcome of the sessions.

Intrapersonal skills are often considered to be the building blocks for sufficient interpersonal knowledge, underpinning coach decision making. (Da Silva et al., 2020) This links to coach behaviour, including factors such as self-awareness, reflection and emotional regulation. These are vital aspects on the path to coaching expertise, yet coaching badges don’t necessarily focus on these areas specifically, relying on coaches to develop these individually through experience.

My coaching career began four years ago, working within the community foundation of a professional football club. According to Schempp et al. (2006) this would have classed me as a novice, defining it as someone with less than three years’ experience. Despite this, I felt as though I was already a step ahead of novice coaches due to the environment and experiences I had been exposed to during my playing career. Interestingly research suggests that there is a positive trend between successful coaches and their time accumulated as an athlete. (Gilbert et al., 2006) Reflection upon this now, highlights my lack of understanding, meeting several of the criteria Schempp et al. (2006) discusses as part of being a beginner. However, interestingly research suggests that there is a positive trend between successful coaches and their time accumulated as an athlete. (Gilbert et al., 2006)

I am unsure as to whether I necessarily agree with Schempp’s idea of a time frame determining the expertise of a coach, as this doesn’t take into consideration the quality of their practice.

WHAT ARE THE STAGES OF COACH DEVELOPMENT?

Schempp et al. (2006) introduces the 4 stages of development that a coach must progress through to become an expert.

-              Novice

-              Competent

-              Proficient

-              Expert

To date I have been coaching for four years in a variety of contexts, situating myself in the competent stage of development. However, I am sure that there are elements of my coaching practice that display aspects of both novice and proficient coaching. Part of being competent refers to the increased attention to improving performance reducing the time spent on player management. The knowledge I hold in regard to good coaching practice and the ways in which children learn is far superior to the beginning of my career taking steps to ensure my development. There are two forms of development, formal and informal. Much of my learning to date, has been informal acquiring abundances of experience yet only completing one coaching badge. According to Côté (2006) the use of formal development, specifically education programs is a weaker form of development, highlighting issues such as lack of depth and their ‘knowledge transfer’ approach to teaching. Therefore, to underpin my decision making and work on the pitch, I felt a sports coaching degree would provide in-depth detail around developing expertise.

AM I AN EXPERT COACH?

Many coaches set out to become an expert in what they do but, what does it take? Schempp & McCullick (2010) again suggests that experience is a primary factor within establishing coach expertise, referring to Ericsson (1998) and the requirement of 10 years minimum to become an expert. For myself, I was fortunate that the environment I was working with at the beginning of my coaching journey was stretched for staff, as this facilitated the exposure to a multitude of different contexts. This benefited my development as a coach, as it aided the learning of new skills, such as adapting myself in relation to the participants and figuring out the most effective way to interact with them. This links to Côté (2006) who introduces ‘The sport coach as a learner’ highlighting several opportunities for development, one of which discusses the use of professional organizations to facilitate learning opportunities hard to replicate elsewhere.

Overall, I would conclude that I am relatively distant from becoming an expert for the time being, yet I am ensuring coach development through a degree as well as an abundance of experience in numerous contexts to make progress towards that goal.

 ‘DEVELOPING GOOD PEOPLE’ – BEN CONWAY

The views and ideas you have presented around developing good people are thorough and intuitive. Interestingly, the direction in which you have taken your blog offers an alternative perspective, differing from my own.

Having produced my own blog around this topic, it was interesting to see an alternative view. Although we have slightly different definitions of sportsmanship, our views are aligned and take similar precautions to ensure our teams display these characteristics. Your approach to highlight the four key areas of sportsmanship, referencing Keating (1964), provides specific areas to target within my coaching sessions, through conditioning or through coach behaviours.

Being a grassroots coach like yourself, I understand the importance of instilling teamwork within youth athletes. From your blog, it was insightful to grasp an understanding of the external factors that can affect the athlete’s level of sportsmanship. Although you don’t specifically discuss the mitigating factors, would you agree that there is a way to reduce the impact external influences have on the athletes’ sporting behaviour? Arnold (1994) identifies two strategies that aim to establish prosocial behaviours within a group of athletes, moral education and moral training. Moral training aims to condition the athletes to display a desired behaviour rather than develop an understanding, whereas moral education perceives both understanding and training as equally important. Off the back of this, the exploration into motivation orientation you presented was fascinating, introducing me to the differing expected behaviours. You suggest that ego orientated athletes were more likely to succumb to unsporting behaviours due to their desire to win, sometimes referring to cheating or aggression. To combat this, perhaps the coach could begin shifting athletes towards a more task orientated mindset, through the focus on personal growth and the praise for effort rather than success. Within my context, I have always praised my players for the effort they have applied to training and games over success, yet I was unaware of increased likelihood of a participant displaying unsporting behaviour if they were ego orientated.

This links to your section on how, you as a coach, develop good sporting behaviour within your sporting context. Your use of removal punishment as a development strategy is perhaps underpinned by your behaviourist approach, linking to the work of B.F Skinner (1958) and their research around conditioning. You mention removing the opportunity to take a penalty at the end of training, in which I take a similar approach, removing time off the game at the end of the session. Not only does this remove an aspect of the sport that they see as valuable but one that the group as a whole looks forward to. The aim of this is to promote sportsmanship throughout the group and encourage players within to further reinforce the desired behaviours. I am in favour of your acknowledgement to how coach behaviour can influence the views of your participants. As coaches, we act as role models to the players we coach, therefore body language and terminology needs to be appropriate to facilitate the development of desired characteristics. (Lyle, 2013) A way in which I display sportsmanship is shaking the oppositions hand after the game, illustrating to the group a desired behaviour. This is supported through verbal encouragement.

The blog you have written has broadened my knowledge and encouraged me to explore further into the techniques used to develop sportsmanship within groups. As athletes are exposed to a variety of professional and amateur sports, there will always be a risk of unsporting-like behaviours being developed. However, as grassroots coaches we have little control over this, and can only influence the players when they are within our sessions, highlighting the importance of instilling desired behaviours from the beginning of their sporting journey.

‘COACHING KNOWLEDGE AND DEVELOPMENT OF EXPERTISE’ – SAM ADSHEAD

The points of view you have shared within your blog around theories of learning made for an interesting read, helping to further develop my understanding around this subject. Your work within an alternative context was exciting to see, allowing me to draw a comparison between our two environments.

Having also completed a blog around coaching knowledge and development of expertise, it was beneficial to grasp an understanding of how it applies to you. Reading your section around ‘an effective coach’ took the blog in a different direction to my own, helping to further my knowledge. I enjoyed reading your exploration into how effectiveness involves a positive coach-athlete relationship, acknowledging the participant as a crucial part of their own learning. Perhaps this links to your constructivist approach to coaching? This was an area my knowledge lacked depth yet, your blog has helped to bolster this. Upon reflection on myself as a coach, at the beginning of my career I believed my interpersonal skills were competent however, I now understand that this wasn’t necessarily the case and that they needed developing. Since then, skills such as communication and empathy have become significant parts of my coaching expertise. Like many novice coaches, intrapersonal skills were something that I needed to develop, evidently displaying a lack of self-awareness.

The acknowledgement of 27 different definitions for coaching expertise was captivating however, it would’ve been intriguing to hear your own. Further research into this led me to the work of Nash and Collins (2006) who discuss the influencing elements on coach expertise, suggesting that it can involve one’s personal experiences. Therefore, this means that a coach’s decision making, which is a key part of expertise, is heavily underpinned by the factors they were exposed to previously such as, the style of coaching and understanding of how learning works. For me personally, coaching expertise refers to the in-depth understanding of how learning takes place alongside possessing the ability to make appropriate decisions consistently, stimulating development.

Additionally, you explore the the four key stages in coach development. I was intrigued by your personal experiences provided, indicating your transition from novice to proficient was based off your knowledge gained rather than the time frame which is suggested by Schempp et al. (2006). This aligns with my views on stages of coach expertise, favouring a coaches effectiveness based on qualifications and the standard of coaching practice they facilitate. This is underpinned by Schempp et al. (2010) who suggests that coaches should be evaluated based upon the time that they are delivering coaching knowledge and improving player performance. It was interesting to see how the most recent article refines the development of expertise. Reflection upon myself, indicates that similarly to you, I am situated within the proficient category. Within my sport of football, I am unsure of the need for this form of categorisation, with many preferring to refer to coaching badges and level of experience.

You conclude asking the question, ‘how do I become an expert?’. In response to this, I would continue to gain experience within a variety of environments where possible. For me personally, although staying within the sport of football, the exposure to different contexts has provided the opportunity to work with different participants and coaches that has helped to shape my own coaching style. Interestingly I have found that the interaction with specialist groups, such as disability and mental health facilitates unique inter and intrapersonal skills. (Pellegrino & Hilton, 2012).

The blog you have provided has highlighted a plethora of concepts that have helped to further develop my understanding of coach expertise.

Despite growth of female sports, the industry is still heavily dominated by male athletes. In recent years, efforts have been made to improve the accessibility to female sports, from grassroots through to the elite level. This blog aims to target some of the key areas in relation to women’s sport, comparing them to my existing experience working with these athletes.

My experience within coaching youth female athletes has highlighted their ability to take on more information than their male counterparts. Interestingly, I felt as though the athletes were better learners, having an increased level of understanding compared to male athletes of a similar age. This perhaps links to the differing rates of development. Gurian (2010) suggests that girls tend to develop cognitive skills before boys, such as verbal and language, preferring a collaborative approach to coaching. Intriguingly, the link between this and my coaching style could play into why I noticed a significant difference between the two genders. Adopting a constructivist approach to coaching appeals to the method in which youth female athletes have shown to engage most from.

THE FEMALE ATHLETE TRIAD

Female athletes within high intensity sports are at risk from the female athlete triad, a medical condition that is composed from three components. (Otis et al., 1997) Initially, these components consisted of, eating disorder, amenorrhea and osteoporosis but have since been refined to menstrual disturbance, low energy availability and bone mineral density. George et al. (2011) explores the female athlete triad, suggesting that these are now on a continuum from healthy to pathological. From my understanding, mitigating factors include appropriate nutrition, rest and specialist medical support. Linking back to blog entry 4 around nutrition, this moves out of the knowledge I possess as a coach, tailoring towards health and medicine, meaning it is only appropriate to give general or where to seek professional advice.

LOW ENERGY AVALIABILITY

The first element of the female athlete triad suggests that participants are not consuming sufficient calories to support the demands of their sport. Although it is important for both male and female athletes to consume the recommended number of calories, it appears to be increasingly common in sports that value weight, such as gymnastics and figure skating. (Sundgot-Borgen, 1994) My context of grassroots football doesn’t require athletes to be a certain weight or build yet, research suggests that it is still more common in female athletes to suffer with low energy availability in some format (healthy, subclinical or pathological) than nonathletes.

MENSTRUAL DISTURBANCE

Sport has proven to affect the consistency in which female athletes menstruate. (Redman & Loucks, 2005b) This poses a threat, not only to their chances of reproduction but can have a serious impact on their ability to participate in sport. One of the secondary conditions associated with amenorrhea, is osteoporosis, meaning the athletes bones are weakened, often considered to be ‘crumbly’.  This is often associated with sports that value figure and weight, such as endurance athletes and gymnasts.

LOW BONE MINERAL DENSITY

As mentioned, osteoporosis is a secondary effect of menstrual disturbances, meaning the athlete bones are weaker than is considered healthy. Interestingly, Nose-Ogura et al. (2018) suggests that female athletes who suffered with secondary amenorrhea, were more likely to have low bone mineral density. Based on this, as a coach, training management is essential within female athletes, ensuring that players are not being over trained.

Pitchers & Elliott-Sale (2019) highlight the importance of tailored training for female athletes. Their research considers the female athlete triad, suggesting that training should attempt to align with the stages of menstrual cycle. For example, during ovulation, the athletes should prioritise strength and power training as this is when their levels of testosterone peak. This is not only for athletic development, but also to mitigate the chance of injury, as hormone imbalance can lead to increased susceptibility. (Roop, 2018) As a grassroots coach, typically working with male athletes, I am unsure whether this is appropriate or ethical but can understand why some sports at the elite level might benefit from this. Alongside this, it requires in depth knowledge around the science underpinning it, which I currently lack, deterring me from applying it in practice.

Overall, the importance of having an understanding of the female athlete shouldn’t be overlooked. In relation to the female athlete triad, I don’t feel as though I would be discussing specifics with players, as I lack knowledge depth in this area. However, upon reflection, awareness of this is essential to help manage players, mitigating the risks of sport participation, promoting a lifelong career in sport. ultimately, if I was working within the elite level of sports, perhaps more knowledge around this would be required yet grassroots football is typically relaxed in comparison and doesn’t have the same risks such as overtraining.

IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT

As a coach, it isn’t just our planned practice that can influence athlete development, yet the way in which our participants perceive us also has an impact. Goffman (1959) theorises the idea of impression management, discussing how people attempt to choose the way other perceive them.  This blog entry aims to explore impression management as a concept, alongside providing my own personal experiences.

Good coaches will understand that coaching isn’t just about designing fancy training sessions, but the way in which they are delivered. Impression management is considered to be a psychosocial tool that can be used to achieve indented outcomes in practice. It’s important to recognise that one’s self-identity is dynamic in nature, being developed over time. (Lavallee & Robinson, 2007) This suggests that self-identity is a combination of internal and external factors, such as personal experiences and environment. My self-identity is fluid, changing depending on the environment, for example, using appearance within my coaching sessions to establish a sense of authority amongst my players. For me this starts with wearing the coach’s attire.

The work of Goffman, highlights four key areas of impression management:

(Goffman, 1959)

Appearance

Appearance refers to the visual features of a performer. In my coaching practice this can be seen through the distinct coaching attire that differs from that of a player, attempting to establish authority and leadership within the group. This is essential as a coach, building creditability and encourages players to actively engage within the sessions. Perhaps this links to Jowett (2002) who explores the coach-athlete relationship suggesting that careful consideration of appearance can reinforce confidence and approachability.

Manner

Aligning with the aims of appearance, Goffman (1959) suggests that manner is the way in which one behaves and interacts with others. As a coach, behaviours might change from session to session depending on the participants and aims but must link to the appearance. As a coach within the community foundation of a professional football club, my manner must also display professionalism as well as communicating in a way that reflects the working relationships between other coaches.

Props

Props are items that a coach uses to help portray the desired perception. I use a whilst within my session, not only to begin conditioning the athletes but links strongly to the authoritative perception I attempt to create. Despite this, I feel that this is the one I use the least, perhaps due to the lack of understanding prior to this blog. However, in my environment I believe that my manner and appearance are enough to change the way the players and parents perceive me, mitigating the need for props necessarily.

Staging

Staging is a useful strategy that uses all 3 other aspects of impression management to promote an intended outcome. Potrac et al. (2020) suggests that staging involves the coach adapting the way they choose to manage themselves, applying their subject knowledge perhaps in a different manner or environment to their most favourable. For example, during my coaching sessions, I have altered my manner during fitness testing adopting more of a behaviourist approach than my typically constructivist outlook on practice. As mentioned, good coaches will apply staging as a strategy to get more from their athletes, psychologically and socially.

Overall, the use of impression management shouldn’t be overlooked as a strategy to meet certain goals within a group of athletes. It is prevalent throughout my coaching practice. Interestingly, Goffman (1959) discusses how it can be a conscious and unconscious decision, suggesting that expert coaches use a strong balance of both within their context.

Throughout this module, the construction of blog entries has helped me to reflect on my own coaching experiences and underpin my coach decision making with academic research. This final blog entry will facilitate the development of an action plan, aiming to establish a clear pathway to my desired career, through short medium- and long-term targets. Locke and Latham (1985) suggest that the use of goal setting is linked to increased performance levels, driving motivation to achieve long term targets. It is important to recognise that full time coaching jobs in the professional game are limited, often increasingly difficult to come by, making extra qualifications and experience highly valuable.

At the time of writing this, I have an abundance of experience within numerous contexts and job roles. To date I have spent 4 years working within the community foundation of national league side Boston United FC, which is where my coaching journey began. This has exposed me to many different coaches and groups that has allowed me to develop and refine my coaching style. On top of this, alongside my degree, I have been completing analysis for Preston North End’s academy, alternating the perspective from which I view the game. Not only this, but the professional environment has introduced me to high level, experienced coaches that I can take tips and advice from.

SHORT TERM

One of my short-term targets aims to establish myself as a sports coach in the northwest. Moving to this part of the country has posed some threats to certain aspects of my coach development, particularly the experience side of things. Although I am still actively coaching within Boston United when I return from university, it would benefit me as a coach to be able to apply my theory into practice whilst in Preston. I aim to ask the question to Preston North End, investigating whether there is or will be a voluntary or part time opportunity to begin coaching within their environment.

Even as an analyst, it has been a great opportunity to watch UEFA A licenced coaches interact and deliver coaching practice of the highest quality, something that I had not seen before on a consistent basis.

MEDIUM TERM

Although Côté (2006) suggests that coaching badges are a weaker form of development, my medium-term target will aim to achieve my UEFA C license, allowing me to deliver sessions individually. Currently, this could be the biggest aspect holding me back as a coach, in the sense it facilitates a multitude of job opportunities. For one reason or another, I have not had the chance to complete this. Despite this, with my second year of university drawing to a close, I feel that I am in a better place now than when I originally applied for this badge, prior to beginning a sports coaching degree. In order to achieve this, it is important I accomplish my short-term target as a team is required to complete this coaching license. From a personal point of view, it is less about the content of the qualification, as my degree is more thorough, and more about having the paperwork to support my coaching CV.

LONG TERM

Networking and establishing professional relationships with clubs and other coaches in this industry is a top priority for me. With the long-term goal being a full-time job post degree, networking is a crucial step of the progress to increase the likelihood of securing a highly sought at opportunity. I am fully aware of this job role being relatively competitive and that full time jobs are rare within the professional game, meaning it is essential I complete extra qualifications and experience, hence doing a sports coaching degree. In my opinion, experience is more valuable that coaching qualifications, yet I understand that they are a measurable scale into the quality of the coach and the way in which they can unlock further opportunities. Over the next year, I aim to continue networking to increase my list of contacts, attempt to complete my UEFA C, as well as gathering experience within a championship academy.

Overall, this module has provided an excellent opportunity for me to reflect on my own coaching practice and provide reasoning behind my coach decision making. It has certainly changed the way in which I go about my coaching sessions, having reasoning to underpin interactions and the way I can improve my own expertise. Going forward I aim to continue informal and formal development to aid my coaching progression, which the professional game being my desired destination.

STUDENT CHOICE – LOUIS ROGERSON

It was enlightening to read your blog around impression management and how it applies to you as a cricket coach. Impression management is a tool in which we as coaches can use to achieve intended outcomes, originally theorised by Goffman in 1959.

It was interesting to read your thoughts around self-identity and how you describe it as ‘continuously formed’ suggesting that it is everchanging due to several internal and external factors. The work of Goffman (1959) indicates the construction of self-identify and how it is facilitated through social interactions. Perhaps this links to Schempp et al. (2006) and their theory around coach expertise. Expert coaches, with many years experience will have developed a self-identity that reflects their learning, which we can assume will be far superior to a novice.

You discuss impression management, suggesting that an individual can consciously adapt the way in which they want others to perceive them. But why? From my understanding, the conscious attempt to apply impression management is to ‘fit in’ or ‘play the role’. For example, my appearance in a coaching setting differs vastly to when I am at home in a private environment because I am trying to display professional characteristics when delivering sessions.

From your blog entry, an area of interest was staging, the conscious attempt to change the way in which you as an individual as perceived. Linking back to Goffman (1959) they underpin this suggesting that people act differently in public settings, sometimes referred to as a social mask. You discuss how you use an alternative tone of voice when coaching which I thought was an intriguing take on staging. Within my practice, I use different coaching styles depending on the session and group, for example, adopting a behaviourist approach during fitness testing. This is used to motivate and drive the athletes to perform optimally. (Watson & Kimble, 2017)

It was refreshing to read around props and how you use them within cricket, as in my experience, these can be the toughest to apply. In my context of football, I find it hard to use props in an effective way, often choosing to avoid them because of this. It was interesting to see you discuss the use of cones and bibs as props which could perhaps be linked to the impression management of a novice coach. (Schempp, 2006) As mentioned within my own blog, I strongly believe that my manner and appearance are effective enough to alter the way in which my parents and players perceive me. Despite this, at the beginning of my coaching journey, I would have been using cones and bibs to make complex drills to show my organisation and planning skills, believing it was the most appropriate way.

Goffman (1959) explores appearance, suggesting it refers to the visual features of a coach, for example coaching attire. You describe this as predominately unconscious yet I’m unsure whether I necessarily agree. Individuals chose to wear certain clothes in relation to their environment, in this case a coaching session. Despite this, there are aspects that are likely to be unconscious as a result of upbringing and habitual behaviours. Goffman (1959) goes on further to discuss how these tend to be developed over a longer period of time becoming automatic to the individual.

Upon reflection on your blog, I have certainly bolstered my understanding around the topic providing an alternate sport’s perspective. This was useful as it has underpinned and given reasoning for my decisions as a coach that I was unaware of prior to researching this topic. It is certainly a useful strategy to alter the way others perceive you, which as a coach can help to establish a professional coach-athlete relationship. (Jowett, 2002)