Print awareness helps children understand that print carries meaning and represents spoken words

It teaches them how to handle books, start reading, and recognize letters and words

This is a key first step in learning to read

Print referencing is a read-aloud strategy that draws children’s attention to how print works

It uses verbal (questions, comments) and nonverbal (pointing, tracking print) cues during shared reading

This helps children connect spoken and written language and builds early literacy skills

A child’s understanding of how print works is key to building reading and writing skills and predicting future reading success

This understanding develops through adult guidance and print-rich environments that highlight print’s forms and functions

Students in low-SES classrooms often have less exposure to print, which can impact their literacy development

Print knowledge starts in preschool and should be a key goal in Kindergarten

By Kindergarten’s end, students should know book parts, follow print direction, and understand that print carries meaning

They should also recognize letters vs. words, spaces between words, and that print connects to spoken language

Assess print awareness in Kindergarten three times: fall, winter, and spring

Use informal, hands-on assessments (ask students to point to or show print concepts)

Provide extra support and close monitoring for students who need it, especially early in the year

Print referencing uses verbal and nonverbal cues during shared storybook reading to build print awareness

It works best with books where print is clear and noticeable (big books, bold print, predictable text)

This strategy helps maximize learning during any read-aloud experience

Spanish is more phonetic than English, with a close match between sounds and letters

Vowels are consistent and taught first; they form the base of every syllable

Some consonants (like c, g, /s/, /b/, /y/) have multiple sounds or spellings, which can be challenging for beginners

Consonant sounds like /k/, /g/, and /x/ follow predictable patterns based on the surrounding vowels

Students learn to use syllabic context to help decode and spell words

Spanish phonics instruction starts with vowels, progressing to more complex sounds like consonants, blends, and vowel combinations

Consonants are taught with vowels to support decoding and reading fluency

Instruction should introduce consonants gradually, grouped by articulation type (e.g., bilabial, dental, alveolar)

Systematic review and repetition help students master sound/spelling relationships

Spanish is a syllabic language, with most syllables either open CV or closed CVC

Syllables aim to end in vowels; single consonants between vowels join the next vowel (e.g., ca•la•ba•za)

Digraphs (ch, ll, rr) are never split; diphthongs/triphthongs stay together unless accented

Other rules guide prefix divisions, liquid consonants (l, r), and separating two consonants between vowels (e.g., pron•to)

The chart highlights differences between English and Spanish phonology/orthography

Understanding these helps teachers support Spanish-speaking students’ reading and spelling

Teachers can build on students’ existing literacy skills by recognizing cross-language patterns

Spanish literacy provides a strong foundation for learning English phonics

Spanish readers understand that letters represent sounds, which can be blended into words

Teachers can build on shared phonic elements between Spanish and English to support reading instruction

Cognates are words in two languages with similar spelling, pronunciation, and meaning

English and Spanish share many cognates due to common Latin and Greek roots

Cognates help students transfer knowledge from Spanish to English vocabulary

Cognates can be: identical, nearly identical, similarly pronounced, or false cognates (look similar but have different meanings)

Students must memorize letter shapes and names; handwriting practice helps

Letter sounds often match their names, making them easier to learn

Students can be taught to detect sounds in letter names instead of just memorizing them

Most letter names contain the sound the letter represents (they are iconic)

Example: the letter b includes the sound /b/ in both English and Spanish

In English, only h and w are non-iconic (their names don’t contain their sounds)

The letter y is considered iconic because it can represent /ī/

Letter learning is affected by how similar a letter looks or sounds compared to other letters

Visually similar letters are more likely to confuse students (ex: b/d, p/q)

Teaching tip: introduce a confusing letter only after the other letter in the pair is well learned

Lowercase letters that closely resemble their uppercase forms are easier to learn (ex: C/c is easier than G/g)

Phonological characteristics of letter names impact how easily students learn them

Phonological similarity is based on how many phonemes two letter names share in the same position

Example: p and b share a phoneme, but p and f do not

Letters with similar-sounding names can cause confusion during learning

Students are most likely to confuse letters that are similar in both name and shape

Example: uppercase B and D — similar sounds and shapes — often get interchanged

Letters that are only visually similar but sound different (ex: lowercase h and n) cause less confusion

Teaching should be mindful of letters with combined visual and phonological similarity

Students learn letter sounds more easily when the letter name contains its sound (ex: b)

Students are better at identifying sounds that appear at the beginning of the letter name

Letters where the sound is not in the name (h, w) are harder for students to learn

Young children may make mistakes by using letter names as sound clues, like using y for /w/ in win

Learning to write letters is as important as learning to recognize them; handwriting supports reading and spelling

Young students need explicit instruction and lots of guided practice in letter formation

Using a continuous stroke for handwriting helps reduce errors like letter reversals; most lowercase letters can be written this way

Teach proper posture, paper position, and pencil grip to support handwriting skills

Group similarly formed letters together when teaching and focus first on learning the motor pattern of each letter

Use tools like arrow cues and give clear, consistent directions for how to form each letter

Letter knowledge supports literacy by helping students label letter shapes and develop phonological awareness

Knowing letter names helps students decode words and connect sounds to spelling patterns

Fluent letter recognition allows students to focus on higher literacy tasks like comprehension

Handwriting practice improves letter recognition and contributes to better writing skills

Many children learn the alphabet song informally by age 3–5, but need formal instruction to name, recognize, and write letters

Effective letter instruction should be systematic and planned

Research suggests teaching should begin with letter names, then shapes/formation, and finally letter sounds

More instructional time should be spent on challenging letters (like w) rather than giving equal time to all letters

Letter naming fluency assesses how quickly and accurately students can name uppercase and lowercase letters, in and out of sequence

This fluency shows how thoroughly students have learned their letters, not just if they can identify them

Letter naming fluency is typically assessed in Kindergarten (fall, winter, spring) and in 1st grade (fall)

Handwriting assessments should evaluate execution, legibility, and speed, which support overall writing fluency and task efficiency

Includes awareness of sounds in spoken language (words, syllables, phonemes)

Phonemic awareness is the most important part—helps with reading success

Phonemic awareness is about spoken sounds; phonics connects sounds to letters

When phonemes are taught with letters, it becomes phonics instruction

Develops in 4 levels: word, syllable, onset-rime, and phoneme

Students learn to blend, segment, and manipulate sounds as they progress

Builds a strong base for phonemic awareness by focusing on how language sounds

Blending and segmenting phonemes are the most important for reading and spelling success

Should be explicit and systematic, start simple, then build up (e.g., words → phonemes)

Best taught in small groups with clear modeling and practice time

Lessons should be short (under 30 mins) and total less than 20 hours yearly

Focus on 1–2 skills per lesson (like blending or segmenting)

Use concrete tools (blocks, buttons) and fun, engaging activities

Phonemes must be pronounced clearly to help students blend sounds

Stop sounds are quick and can’t be stretched out (e.g., /b/, /d/); avoid adding “uh” after them

Model stop sounds with a very short vowel (like /bi/ for /b/)

Continuous sounds can be stretched and are easier to blend (e.g., /s/, /m/)

Phonological awareness is needed before phonics instruction can be effective

Strong phonological skills lead to better reading outcomes

Over 90% of students with reading difficulties struggle with processing sounds

Being able to segment and blend sounds helps connect speech to print and improves decoding

Phonemic awareness at school entry predicts later reading success

Teach easier sound tasks first (like blending) before harder ones (like segmentation)

Focus lessons on 1–2 phoneme skills at a time for better results

Kindergarten: 10–15 mins per day; more time for students needing support

1st Grade: 10 mins daily for 3 months; add small group time if needed

2nd Grade and up: Only needed if students still struggle with recognizing words

It’s helpful to include letters, but the right timing isn’t always clear

Start assessing in mid-Kindergarten and continue through early grades as needed

If a student can decode well, further assessment isn’t needed

Use assessments to target the right skill level (e.g., isolation vs. blending)

Intensive support may include small groups, extra time, and physical modeling of sounds

Phonological awareness still helps students who haven’t made reading progress

Assessment may still be useful if older students struggle with decoding

Focus intervention on specific skill gaps to build decoding ability

Focus: Develops rhyme recognition and generation through storytelling

Focus: Teaches students to blend and break apart compound words

Focus: Helps students break words into syllables or parts

Focus: Teaches students how to remove parts of compound words

Focus: Builds ability to hear and blend syllables in multisyllabic words

Focus: Helps students blend beginning sounds (onsets) with rimes

Focus: Builds awareness of individual sounds in words

Focus: Teaches students to identify the same sound across different words

Focus: Encourages students to find the word that doesn’t belong based on sound

Focus: Builds skill in blending individual phonemes to form words

Focus: Teaches students to break words into individual sounds and blend them back together

Focus: Helps students visually map phonemes using Elkonin boxes

Phonics teaches how letters and sounds connect to form words

It helps students decode unfamiliar words by blending sounds

Phonics should be systematic, explicit, and connected to reading texts

Instruction helps develop strong foundational reading skills

Most effective when it follows a planned sequence

Lessons include direct teaching, modeling, and practice

Builds from simple to complex skills

Allows students to apply phonics to real reading and writing tasks

Synthetic Phonics: Blends sounds to read words (e.g., /c/ /a/ /t/ = cat)

Analogy Phonics: Uses known word parts to read unfamiliar words

Analytic Phonics: Analyzes letter-sound relationships in known words

Embedded Phonics: Teaches phonics in context through reading

Focuses on understanding how letters link to sounds

Provides plenty of guided and independent practice

Includes feedback and correction

Uses decodable text and builds fluency

Correction: Prompt and clear, helps students fix errors

Modeling: Teacher demonstrates correct pronunciation and blending

Pacing: Lessons are brisk but allow time for mastery

Practice: Frequent, with repetition and variety

Should move from simple to complex patterns

Start with short vowels, then move to digraphs, blends, long vowels

Includes both decoding and encoding skills

Sequence should match students' developmental levels

Regular: Follow common phonics rules (cat, ship)

Irregular: Don’t follow common rules (said, was)

Teach irregular words explicitly and frequently

Use repetition and visual reminders

Use routines like Model, Lead, and Check

Teach blending in small steps: sound-by-sound and continuous

Practice with word cards and finger tracking

Reinforce through repetition and clear correction

Phonics leads to automatic recognition of words

Students must practice to build fluency

Use decodable texts to reinforce learned phonics

Frequent exposure helps transfer to real reading

Phonograms are letter patterns that represent sounds (-at, -op)

Help students recognize chunks in words

Useful in word families and spelling instruction

Practice both reading and writing with phonograms

Focus on encoding (spelling) as much as decoding (reading)

Activities include Elkonin boxes, word sorts, and building words

Help reinforce sound-spelling connections

Should be engaging and hands-on

Students write words after hearing them sounded out

Helps reinforce phonics and spelling patterns

Includes modeling, guided practice, and independent spelling

Teachers check for accuracy and give corrective feedback

Use familiar chunks (-ight, -ain) to read and build words

Quick blending routines reinforce phonogram knowledge

Practice with both decoding and encoding

Apply to decodable text for reinforcement

Use stories with target phonics patterns

Start by reviewing irregular words and phonics skills

Preview and model reading strategies before reading

Provide guided, group, and individual reading practice

Preview cover, title, and target patterns

Make predictions and discuss story structure

Highlight tricky words and new phonics elements

Engage students before reading begins

Read text aloud as a class, page by page

Discuss meaning, model fluent reading, and correct mistakes

Focus on both decoding and comprehension

Use visuals and context to support learning

Students read on their own after group reading

Builds fluency and reinforces phonics patterns

Teachers monitor and offer support as needed

Rereading helps deepen understanding

Ask literal and inferential questions to build comprehension

Encourage full sentence responses

Connect questions to phonics skills and story content

Promote critical thinking and discussion

Stand-Out strategy highlights tricky irregular words by making them visually distinct

Students say, spell, trace, and repeat the word multiple times

Emphasizes helping students form a strong mental image of irregular words

Repetition and context are key to remembering tricky spellings

Irregular words should be practiced in isolation and in context

Use guided group instruction to model and review

Practice using sentence frames and high-frequency word charts

Goal is for students to recognize irregular words automatically while reading

Once learned, words should be used in decodable text to build fluency

Word recognition grids help track word mastery over time

Continued exposure to irregular words reinforces automatic recognition

Includes sample assessment format for tracking student progress

Words with more than one syllable (e.g., fantastic, interesting)

Students must learn to break them into manageable chunks

Helps improve fluency and word recognition

Essential for reading multisyllabic words in content areas

Focuses on decoding strategies for longer, unfamiliar words

Combines phonics (syllables) and morphology (word parts)

Aimed at older students or those struggling with fluency

Prepares students for real-world and academic texts

Teach syllable types and predictable patterns

Use morphemic analysis to uncover meaning

Encourage flexible word-solving strategies

Apply skills to real reading, not just isolation

Introduce the 6 syllable types through modeling and practice

Use patterns like VC/CV to break up words

Recognize vowel sounds and syllable boundaries

Reinforce with visual charts and hands-on sorting

Let students test different ways to split unfamiliar words

Focus on sound and meaning, not just rules

Use think-alouds and peer practice

Build confidence by reinforcing "what sounds right."

Teach common prefixes, roots, and suffixes

Helps students decode and understand new vocabulary

Focus on meaning along with pronunciation

Boosts comprehension across content areas

Not all syllables are meaningful, but all morphemes are

Students must learn to identify both independently

Use side-by-side comparisons (e.g., un-like-ly vs. hap-pi-ness)

Promotes better vocabulary and spelling skills

Morpheme knowledge supports correct spelling patterns

Students apply affix rules in writing and decoding

Helps distinguish similar-sounding suffixes (e.g., –tion vs. –sion)

Useful for ELLs and struggling spellers

Step 1: Find prefixes and suffixes

Step 2: Identify the base/root word

Step 3: Blend the parts together

Step 4: Use context to confirm the meaning

Encourage strategy use during authentic reading

Use decodable or leveled texts with challenging words

Reinforce chunking and morpheme spotting in context

Helps build fluency and comprehension simultaneously

Focus on phrased reading with long, complex words

Use partner reading, echo reading, and repeated reads

Scaffold support by modeling fluent expression

Builds confidence and fluency in multisyllabic word use

Include clear objectives and step-by-step routines

Lessons focus on one skill (ex. syllable sorting, morpheme hunt)

Incorporate visual supports and manipulatives

Offer both guided and independent practice opportunities