2)      Does the possible applications of science justify avoiding scientific injury in certain areas?  Why or why not?
Science is not wrong it is the application of it.
I think that as long as there is a reasonable and morally justifiable code of ethics and regulation it is important to still investigate scientific theories that may help the advancement of mankind and technology in significant ways.

2) the text was written in 1951, find 1-2 passage in the text you would agree still apply today.  Why do you feel it is still relevant today?  Is it relevant to yourself? To humans in general?  To science?   One passage that is still relevant today and is relevant to myself, science and humans in general is the passage that reads “We must expect to discover that what a man does is the result of specifiable conditions and that once these conditions have been discovered, we can anticipate and to some extent determine his actions” I believe this quote is the basis of ABA and operant conditioning in the sense that both analyze ones behavior as being a direct result of stimuli in the environment or “conditions” and once we can determine the condition we can understand what the cause of behavior is and even change it.

 - The ideas of independent variable and dependent variable
- Social force was an important part of controlling.

- Based on observable events that are a functional analysis.
- Interpreting physical situations by what it means

2)  a)   What is a functional analysis?
- A functional analysis demonstrates control over the behaviour thus providing the professional with reliable results. To predict and control individual organism, using cause and effect as the law of science. After that, we link it to behaviour system. 

b)      What is the benefit of constraining ourselves to observable events and behavioural products?
- One of the benefits of observable events is that it can let humans have inner control and practical use through physical events. Also, we shall observe through data, and we do not need to have inner state or the outer force to it.

3)      a) What are the sources used to get material to be analyzed in a science of behaviour? List and describe them.
- Casual observations - generalization based upon them, useful for further study

- Controlled field observation - data sampled have high accuracy

- Clinical observation- Using interviews and testing, usually emphasizing disorders people have.

- Extensive observation- It is more rigidly control and good to use in the experimental method.

- Laboratory studies of human behaviour- Providing useful material that includes instruments that can improve behaviour or functions of the variable.

- Extensive results of laboratory studies of the behaviours of animals below the human level- Usually using animals to do experimental because it is simple.

- Analyzing the functions of human behavior 

- Changing behavior by manipulating the environment

- Formulation of the science of human behavior

- Behavior is predictable therefor controllable
- Complex examples of human behaviour drawn from certain established fields of knowledge are analyzed in terms of these simpler processes and relations. This procedure is called reductionism.

2)      What are the levels of data analysis?
- The analysis of behavior

The individual as a whole

The behavior of people in groups

Controlling agencies

The control of human behavior

a.     Classification of variables and survey of how behaviour changes with these variables.

b.     Broader view of the organism as a whole – internal activities that act as variables on behaviour.

c.      Analysis of interaction of two or more individuals in a social system.

d.     Analysis of control of behaviour in government, religion, psychotherapy, economics and education.

e.     Total culture as a social environment and analysis of general problem of behaviour control.

3) What is the most common objection to completing a functional analysis?  How can/should it be overcome?

The most common objection is that it simply cannot be carried out. This can be overcome with rigorous scientific thinking, treating behaviour like a dependent variable and accounting for behaviour in terms of observable and measurable physical conditions. It requires attention to detail and use of numerical data, as well as examining specific definitions and observing distinctions made.

To overcome this refection is necessary, thinking differently and scientifically, beginning with what has been developed so far in human behaviour, paying close attention to detail and rigorously defining behavioural processes.

 

. Now is more of an important time than ever to try and understand the process involved in behavior

 

. We need to prepare ourselves for difficulties that will arise in behaviorisms and find ways to solve problems that arise in the study of behavioral sciences

 

. Human have restricted dimensions and the behavior changes and not predictable.

 

. Cant expect experts to know every single fact, they should rather have a general/broad understanding of the entire field and all different kinds of facts

 

. Behaviorism needs more solid ideologies to help further our knowledge and understanding of behavior and the science of behavior as a whole

2. a) When does resistance/objections to a science of human behaviour tend to occur?  What are some objections to behaviourism?
Objections to sciences as a behavior began to occur in the romantic evolution era which was the late 1800s into the 1900s. At this time Vitalism and romantic evolutionism were the two main ways of thinking that ruled over the majority of society.

 

Objection 1: 

Seeing human behavior as having lawful scientific data is also a problem that skinner pointed out. This is because science is focused on examining broad problems this doesn’t work as well for behavioral sciences. Behaviorism mainly focuses on studying individuals; therefore, the issue here is science looks at general problems that effect lots of people where as behavioral sciences to be effective needed to be much more individually tailored to the specific person 

 

Objection 2:

 The use of statistical data of a general population or medians being used in behavioural sciences is also an objection skinner had to the discipline. As using a mean number or average and applying it to an individual as a prediction of behavior has no value. This is because the particular individual of study will be unique and most likely will not act the same way the average person does. Continually behavioral sciences that only study behaviour in groups will be of zero use. When studying a certain individual and predicting their behaviour from results of studying a group. It doesn’t help further our understanding of human behaviour and has no use really. his objection means that behaviourism follows a “case study” approach that gives physicist or observers fullness in information for them to create an action that may suit for an individual but not for the general population.

 

Objection 3: 

 

The final objection focuses on this issues with the practical purposes of scientific analysis in behavioral sciences. When using scientific analysis in behavioral sciences, the observer has to accept the behavior they are studying is lawful. And that the current scientific approaches of the time will be able to show the overall rules that direct that particular behavior of study. Therefore, this means that even with scientific analysis the researcher wouldn’t be able to make any technological use of the rules he discovered; unless he/she was able to find a way to regulate the undeniable circumstances in the study. Even if we assume that behavior is lawful and that the methods of science will reveal the rules which govern it, we may be unable to make any technological use of these rules unless certain conditions can be brought under control.

b) What does the text say about the complexity of behaviour and our ability to understand it? (Principle of Indeterminacy)
The text talks about how complex human behaviour is and that a science of behaviour that wants to study lawful interactions will not be accepted by most as scientific. Furthermore, many studies done received rejection and statements of restrictions of the theory or study related to behaviourism. Skinner also said another problem with lawfulness in this discipline is our inability to to define or express lawfulness in a certain behaviour of a person as a whole. Therefore, he believed we need clearer principles of what human behaviour is to be able to make concrete statements on the principles. But because human behaviour was so complex there currently were no real rules, also there is no evidence supporting or saying that the human intellect can’t create, formulate, and comprehend basic principles of human behaviour. Yet in skinners our words he believed the knowledge required to “understand your own personal behaviour is beyond the realms of behaviours we currently understand.” Essentially, behaviourism needed more concrete rules of study, and principles. The behavior required in understanding one's own behavior must be something beyond the behavior which is understood. Until we are familiar and understand the principle, it may guide us towards comprehending the principles of human behavior.

 

PRINCPLE OF INDETERMINCACY - “States that there are circumstances under which the scientist cannot put himself in possession of all relevant information”. Therefore, if he/she’s choses to study/observe one event they lose the chance to observe/study another event. “Therefore, in our present state of knowledge certain events appear to be unpredictable.” 

The principle of indeterminacy essentiality states that we cannot know everything about what we are studying and that if we chose to study one thing we lose our chance to study another thing. 

And that because of this limited knowledge some certain stimuli in our life apper to be unpredictable. The human organism has limited elements and therefore the principle can be applied to human behavior in many ways. 

The principle doesn’t see events as free, this can be applied to helping understand the complexity of behavior as the same principle can be applied to help explain behavior. It can be applied when looking at reflex actions in the human body which are automatic responses to external stimuli we cannot control. 

The principle also states that even though we cannot control all of human behavior we can control certain aspects of it. Therefore, by controlling certain aspects of human behavior we can change a behavior or reinforce a behavior we want. This helped us to understand how humans learn behaviors and that some behaviors are already learned and are innate. Continually, human behaviour is to complex to study like a normal physical science. 

The principle helped to show that behavioural sciences needs to be studied differently and has to find a way to show lawfulness in “behaviours in humans as a whole.” By doing this scientist would gain a better understanding of all human behaviours and would be able to broaden the studies of human behaviour.

 

Question 2 

 

 Psychic inner causes / explain behavior in terms of an inner agent which lacks physical dimensions and is called ‘mental’ pr ‘psychic’ / a science of behavior learns very little since mental events are asserted to lack the dimensions of physical science.   

 

Conceptual inner causes / the commonest inner causes have no specific dimensions either neurological or psychic / The practice of explaining one statement in terms of the other is dangerous because it suggests that we have found the cause and therefor need search no further