The core learning issues are on the preventive measures and management principles of chemical burns.

• Wear of half-face respirator 

Gas and Vapour Filter 6054 offers K1 protection against ammonia and its derivatives

3M™ Bayonet Connection: Flexible system for connection to 3M half and full facepiece

Lightweight with low breathing resistance

2. Buddy system: 

• Encourage all students to work in pairs in projects or conduct experiments with someone else in a lab to ensure assistance when needed. 
  

• how to treat a chemical burn, treatment of eye or inhalation poisoning should be enforced by institutions in case of emergencies. 

  
  

  9. Safe handling: 

• Enforce the guidelines on how to safely handle hazardous chemicals (Always add ammonia to water, not the other way around, to prevent violent reactions or splashes.) 

• Use fume hoods or well-ventilated areas to minimize inhalation risks.

10. Availability of safety equipments: 

• Ensure all safety stations are functioning and easily accessible in the 

laboratory. (eye wash, shower and first-aid kits)

11. Clear Labeling and Storage:

• Clearly label all chemical containers and store them according to safety guidelines to prevent accidental exposure.

  
  

  12.  Safety Signage:

• Relevance: Post clear signage in the lab indicating the hazards associated with ammonia and the required safety precautions to reinforce awareness.

  
  

  13. Education and Awareness:

• Conduct regular drills on emergency response to reinforce safe practices - and ensure preparedness in case of accidents.

• Promote a safety-first culture in the laboratory, encouraging open communication about hazards and the importance of following protocols.

Ammonia is highly alkaline - so even small amounts of substance can cause significant damage to the sensitive tissues especially in the eyes as it is very fragile.

• Can cause eye irritation

As a brief contact of ammonia towards the eyes can cause immediate and intense irritation. Symptoms can include redness, burning, tearing and pain in the eyes. 

• Conjunctivitis

Can lead to inflammation of the conjunctiva. Also categorized by redness, swelling, and watery discharge.

• Corneal damage

Cause chemical burns on the cornea, the clear front surface of the eye. This can lead to blurred vision, extreme discomfort and sensitivity to light. In severe cases, corneal ulcers (open sores) may form, which can significantly affect vision if not treated promptly.

• Temporary or permanent vision loss

Prolonged or high concentration of ammonia contact can lead to temporary vision impairment or in severe cases, permanent vision loss. The damage could affect not only the cornea but also deeper structures within the eye, causing more profound and lasting vision issues. 

This could lead to an increased risk of infection because the eye tissue is damaged and more vulnerable to fungal and bacterial infection.

Ammonia odour threshold is sufficiently low to acutely provide adequate warning of its presence. (Odour threshold = 5 ppm; OSHA PEL = 50 ppm)

Prolonged skin contact (more than a few minutes of ammonia) can cause pain and corrosive injury and also skin burns.

2. Neutralizing agent

   • Safer to remove and dispose

   • Easiest way is to use weak acid / base to form water and salt. 

   • Can use citric acid or sodium sesquicarbonate if small spillage

   • If large spillage, may use stronger acid like diluted HCl

3. Fire extinguisher [7]

   • In case there is fire (ammonia gas in contact with water), ensure that the fire extinguisher available in the lab is working well

     • Locate the fire extinguisher

     • Check the tamper seal and pull pin

       • Both should be intact with no damage to the seal

     • Examine the physical condition

       • Look for signs of wear, tear, damage like dents, corrosions or more on the extinguisher body. Check the hose and nozzle as well for any blockages, cracks or damage

     • Check the pressure gauge

       • Needle in the green area, if in the red zone indicates the need to be replaced or serviced as it is overcharged or undercharged

     • Check inspection tag or label

       • Ensure it reflects the latest professional inspection required by OSHA standards

     • Record the fire extinguisher inspection

       • It is essential to keep track of the inspection history of each fire extinguisher so it’s easier to identify recurring issues

     • Communicate if there are any issues

       • Immediately contact relevant department or individual if there is any issues during the safety check

• Skin Burns and Irritation: Ammonia, a strong alkali, can cause painful burns on the skin, leading to redness, irritation, or blistering if not washed off immediately.

• Eye Injury: Ammonia is highly hazardous to the eyes. Contact can cause severe pain, tearing, blurry vision, and potentially damage the cornea.

• Increased Risk Due to Rubbing: Rubbing the eyes intensified contact between ammonia and the eye tissues, worsening damage to the cornea and increasing pain and irritation.

2. Short-Term Medical Complications

• Corneal Burns: Exposure to ammonia may result in corneal burns, causing temporary blurry vision and sensitivity to light.

• Infection Risk: Burns on the skin or eyes increase the risk of infections, which could complicate and delay the healing process.

3. Long-Term Consequences

• Scarring and Vision Issues: Severe burns can leave permanent scars on the skin, while eye exposure might result in lasting vision problems or even partial blindness if the damage is extensive.

• Chronic Eye Problems: Sophia may experience ongoing eye issues, such as dryness, continuous irritation, or sensitivity to light.

• Psychological Impact: This incident may cause Sophia to feel anxious about working with chemicals, affecting her confidence and effectiveness in future lab work.

4. Misconduct and Its Implications

• Negligence and Harm: Lab safety guidelines are designed to prevent accidents. Failing to use personal protective equipment (PPE) and not following proper handling procedures show negligence. This not only puts Sophia at risk but also highlights a lack of preparation for handling hazardous chemicals.

• Incompetency in Lab Protocols: Rubbing the eyes after chemical exposure and neglecting to rinse immediately indicate a lack of basic safety knowledge, raising concerns about her readiness to work in a lab environment.

5. Penalties and Disciplinary Actions

• Fines and Financial Responsibility: Sophia could be held financially responsible for medical costs if the incident is determined to be due to misconduct or failure to follow safety guidelines.

• Academic Disciplinary Actions: The institution might require mandatory retraining in lab safety, impose temporary suspension from lab activities, or, in severe cases, place her on academic probation.

• Institutional and Legal Liability: In some cases, significant safety breaches could lead to legal consequences, especially if serious harm results from negligence.

6. Institutional Impact and Safety Measures

• Safety Review: This incident may lead the lab to review and improve safety protocols, such as reinforcing PPE requirements and potentially instituting a buddy system for chemical handling to ensure no one works alone.

• Documentation and Reporting: A formal incident report is likely required for institutional records and may inform future safety training for students and staff. This documentation is critical in academic settings to minimize similar incidents.

• NIOSH recommends that contact lens wear be permitted provided that the safety guidelines presented in this Current Intelligence Bulletin (CIB) are followed.

• To review all chemicals used to see whether any reacts or interacts with contact lenses. If so, those uses and areas need to be noted and marked so employees and visitors will be informed and can be properly protected. 

• Here is a just a partial list of some chemicals that can react with contact lens or are restricted due to regulatory guidance:

1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane (DBCP): OSHA regulation
4,4'-methylene dianiline: OSHA regulation
* Ethyl alcohol: Study of absorption by Cerulli, et al. 1985
* Ethylene oxide: OSHA regulation
* Isopropyl alcohol: Study of absorption by Cerulli, et al. 1985
* Methylene chloride: OSHA regulation

*Ammonia

• Comply with OSHA regulations on contact lens and eye and face protection to prevent accidental contact and harm

  
  

  7. Proper training: 

• Comprehensive training and quiz on laboratory safety and how to handle hazardous chemicals should be provided by the institution before the final year project to ensure all students understand and adhere to the proper conduct in a laboratory setting.

Each biosafety level has its own specific containment controls that are required for the following:

• Laboratory practices

• Safety equipment

• Facility construction

  
  

• At any given biosafety level, there will be strict requirements for laboratory design, personal protective equipment, and biosafety equipment to be used.

• Standard Microbiological Practices are required at all biosafety levels and are good practice for experiments below the BSL-1 threshold.

1. Running Water & Remove

• Flood the injured part with running water (NOT ICE) for at least 10 minutes / until the pain is relieved

• Ammonia was splashed into the eye, rush directly to the eye wash station and flush for 15 minutes.

• Remove any jewellery, watches, belts, or constricting clothing from the injured area before it begins to swell

2. Cover

• Cover the burn with a clean plastic wrap (minimize infection), if not available, use an open weave gauze

3. Monitor

• Monitor & record vital signs

• Send to hospital

**** NEVER burst the blister as the risk of infection will be higher once it breaks****

1. Go to an area with fresh air

• Go outside the lab to bring in fresh air

2. Continue being in an area away from the ammonia gas while waiting for the arrival of assistance

3. Monitor and record vital signs (heart rate, breathing rate and blood pressure)

4. If fall unconscious, check symptoms to proceed with recovery position, CPR or EAR

Recovery position

1. Support the casualty’s spine and slowly put on their back

2. Place the nearest arm at a right angle

3. Put the back of the other hand next to the cheek closest to you and hold it there

4. Bend the far knee, grasp the far leg and roll them on their side

5. Open airway

CPR

1. Danger - check for danger

2. Response - tap on the shoulder

3. Shout for help - x necessary here

4. Airway - head tilt chin lift, open the airway 

5. Breathing - check for breathing and pulse

6. Compression - 30 compressions and 2 ventilation, do 5 cycles and check for breathing

EAR - expired air resuscitation

1. DRSAB

2. Rescue breathe approx 1 sec, each causing chest to rise

3. Give 1 breathe every 6 seconds

1. Lab assistants and the student should know where the eye wash is located

2. Must be kept clear and unobstructed

3. Should be flushed by the lab assistant once a week to remove any debris

4. It needs to water flow out evenly from each eyewash head

Emergency shower

1. The valve must activate in 1 second or less

2. Installed at a 10-second distance from the hazard

3. Located in a lighted area and identified with a sign

4. Train workers on equipment use

5. Activate plumbed unit weekly

6. Maintained self-contained units according to the manufacturer specifications

Inadequate Response to Chemical Exposure
Rubbing her eyes after the splash exaggerated Sophia’s injury, as rubbing can worsen chemical irritation. Proper first-aid response includes immediately rinsing the affected area with water for at least 15 minutes to dilute and remove the chemical. Students should be trained to stay calm and act quickly according to first-aid procedures for chemical exposure.

Laboratory Assistant’s Duty of Care
Laboratory assistants play a critical role in maintaining a safe working environment. In Sophia’s case, the assistant could have offered closer supervision, especially for a student working alone. Assistants should be trained to actively monitor students' adherence to safety protocols and intervene to prevent or promptly manage any incidents.

Regular Safety Inspections and Accessibility of Equipment
Periodic inspections of the laboratory environment help identify and rectify potential hazards before incidents occur. Ensuring easy access to safety equipment, such as eye wash stations and first-aid kits, should be a priority, as well as clear signage to guide students in emergencies. Inspections reinforce the institution’s commitment to safety.