The village of Mehrgarh has been found to be the earliest settlement of people in the South Asia region. The settlement was a mud-brick structure with small compartments, most likely for storage. Some finds include turquoise, marine shells, and beads. The archaeological data found in Mehrgarh shows the development of human culture from a farming community to a small city-like entity. The storage of goods in few locations suggests a beneficial relationship between farmers. Finding intricate artwork also suggests that fashion was important to the people who lived here; they were able to spend time apart from farming to develop art and express themselves. (Scarre 2013, p. 524-525)

Located in northern Pakistan, the city of Rehman Dheri was first established in 3300 BC. It is a rectangular settlement with an area of 54 acres that is enclosed by mud-brick walls. Aerial photography has revealed various features of the city like a grid-like street plan and kilns along the western side. The archaeological data found in Rehman Dheri shows the development of human culture in terms of how formal settlements were structured and what may have occurred outside of gathering resources for food. The need to have a large wall around the settlement shows a sense of relation with members of the city, regardless of familiar relationship. Having a wall displays the awareness of outside danger which may invade the city. Organizing kilns along the western side of the city suggests that the creation of jewelry and ceramics had a higher demand. This shows the human culture developing an economy for things outside of natural resources. (Scarre 2013, p. 531)

The Indus civilization consists of cities with similar characteristics: artifact standardization, settlement hierarchy, urban planning, and writing. Cities which were a part of the Indus civilization are Harappa, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi, and Ganweriwala. Although many of these large cities had large brick walls, acknowledging the presence of external threats, there is no celebration or ritualization of warfare. Although many crops and animals were domesticated in each city, there was dependence on other cities to bring in resources. William Belcher suggests fish were traded and moved over though a regional network for the redistribution of food.

This archaeological data tells us that the development of human culture was moving beyond a scattering of individual cities. Rather, on a larger scale, cities were coming together to form a civilization with the acceptance of similar values. (Scarre 2013, p. 533)

Along with the advancement of the Indus civilization in terms of physical structures and societal organization, there is strong evidence behind a written language. Made up of nearly 200 different signs, the language was found to be written on items such as ceramics, boats, and bangles. Many inscriptions include an animal in them; most of them recognizable in the geographic area, but some were found to be hybrids or mythical creatures.

The meaning behind the language today remains a mystery. There is no bilingual inscriptions from which to infer from and the inscriptions are too short. Rajesh Rao from the University of Washington concludes that the inscriptions are indeed a representation of a language. He and his team used sequencing methods and discovered the writing has an order. (Staff. "5000-year-old Indus Script Part of Written Language; New Scientist. May 2, 2009. Date Accessed: 8/2/2014. www.lexisnexis.com/hottopics/lnacademic. (Library source).)

The archaeological data tells us the human development in the area encountered the need to communicate with each other when face-to-face communication was not feasible. With multiple cities and varying distances between them, writing was needed to communicate economic data and societal information. Having writing also suggests the development of written art forms such as poetry and stories. (Scarre 2013, p. 532)

Darius I was a king of Persia from 522 BC to 486 BC. During his reign, he held his empire together while expanding it. Before the influence of Darius, the Indus civilization had collapsed and there was general disarray. Darius came and annexed the area of Gandhara to his empire at the time. As a result, the first urban administrative centers in the region were established. (Steven Fife, "Darius I," Ancient History Encyclopedia, September 2, 2009. Accessed August 2, 2014. http://www.ancient.eu.com/Darius_I/.)

The archaeological data tells us the collapse of the Indus civilization had lasting effects. There was no recovery of the collapse; people essentially went back to living village lifestyles. With the intervention of Darius, the area experienced a centralized administration, encouragement of cultural activities, and legal reformations. (Scarre 2013, p. 541)

The origin of Buddhism stems from Siddhartha Gutama, Buddha himself. He was a leader of a group of people who wandered in search of wisdom. The same time in which Buddha established his following, there were many social changes occurring in India.

Up until Buddha’s time, the prominent philosophy and religion in the region stemmed from the Vedic religion. Because the religion was established much earlier than Buddha’s time, it took on views that were favorable to the nomadic lifestyle. As society advanced into villages, cities, and civilization, the nomadic way of thinking was becoming outdated. Buddha and his following were opposed to the Vedic scriptures and religious establishment in general.

After Buddha’s passing, his followers slowly turned his teachings into an organized movement. Much time was needed before emperor Asoka made Buddhism into the state religion of India. (Cristian Violatti, “Buddhism,” Ancient History Encyclopedia, May 20,

2014. Accessed August 2, 2014. http://www.ancient.eu.com/buddhism/.)  

Emerging coinage in this century has convinced anthropologists of a changing perspective on the economy. Coins are necessary when the market is fluctuated with a variety of products such that there needs to be a standard in the economy. The need for coins also suggests a mechanism for easy storage and movement of surplus and wealth. (Scarre 2013, p. 543)

The particular coins of this era are called punch marked coins. This is because of their manufacturing technique. Usually made of silver, these coins would be characterized by the design on their face. A variety of these designs would be imprinted onto the face of the coin via a stamping process. They had designs that were inspired by nature such as the sun, animals, trees, and hills. (“Ancient India Coinage,” RBI Monetary Museum. Accessed August 2, 2014. http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/c-ancient.html.)

Evidence relating to the invasion and colonization of India by Alexander the Great is limited. After conquering lands in Syria, Egypt, and Persia, Alexander set his sights on India. When Alexander began his invasion, he was assisted by Indian leaders who had rivalries with other leaders. (Scarre 2013, p. 545)

By conquering more and more of the lands and exploring the country, Alexander and his men grew weary and wanted to return home.

After Alexander and his army left India after conquering it, the Indian people revolted against established rule. This is why there is minimal evidence of his conquering in India.

This shows an interesting aspect of the culture of the people; although conquered, the Indians were quick to relinquish any evidence of the conquering as soon as the stronger party departed. Although bonds between leaders were formed with Alexander in the process of his conquest, the people in general did not value outside influence in their lives. (Henrietta Marshall, “Alexander the Great Invades India,” Our Empire Story, 1908. Accessed August 2, 2014. http://hinduism.about.com/od/history/a/alexander.htm.)   

Asoka was the third emperor of the Mauryan Empire. He ruled from 272 BC to 235 BC. During his reign, Asoka established edicts which had a large influence on the people in his empire. He set forth philosophies which incorporated various values: forsake violence and greed, revere animals, works of public benefit, and rectifying administrative evils.

Because the land was peaceful during Asoka’s reign, many people felt comfortable moving around the empire. As a result, there was an enhancement of networks for trading and artifact standardization like coins and monuments. (Scarre 2013, p. 546-548)

Roman contact with Indians was established by the 1^st century AD. Most of southern India pre-Roman contact was agrarian and pastoral. By coming into contact with the Romans and having economic development, the land become a trading post for European traders. This outside influence transformed the rural lands into literate, dynamic kingdoms with powerful trading partners.  

Often times, the traders would invest their efforts into improving the economic conditions for themselves on Indian soils. Traders would convert fishing villages into permanent trading centers by investing in infrastructure.

This shows an interesting cultural perspective on behalf of the Indian people. As long as there was no invasion of any kind, trade was acceptable. As a result, the infrastructure was enhanced and the overall sophistication of the society went up. With experiences like this, the people living in the region were more likely to open up their rivers and roads to international trade, saturating the market with goods and increasing their overall value on the global stage. (Scarre 2013, p. 550)

Cristian Violatti, “Buddhism,” Ancient History Encyclopedia, May 20, 2014. Accessed August 2, 2014. http://www.ancient.eu.com/buddhism/.  

Henrietta Marshall, “Alexander the Great Invades India,” Our Empire Story, 1908. Accessed August 2, 2014. http://hinduism.about.com/od/history/a/alexander.htm.   

Scarre, Chris.The Human Past: World Prehistory & the Development of Human Societies,3^rd ed. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd., 2013.

Staff. "5000-year-old Indus Script Part of Written Language; New Scientist.May 2, 2009. Date Accessed: 8/2/2014. www.lexisnexis.com/hottopics/lnacademic. (Library source).  

Steven Fife, "Darius I," Ancient History Encyclopedia, September 2, 2009. Accessed August 2, 2014. http://www.ancient.eu.com/Darius_I/.