Understanding Diverse Clients:

-Oppression Model --> counselors must understand stereotypes, prejudice, discrimination + privilege

-Social Identity Development --> counselors must consider social, political + cultural contexts

-Worldview --> counselors must recognize individuals have their own unique experience of the world

Diversity + The Counseling Process:

-Cultural Empathy --> counselor’s learned ability to understand + communicate understanding of client’s culturally diverse experience

-Trust --> cultural mistrust can be a barrier which can be helped with the concept of ethical bracketing (counselor separates personal +professional views to provide more ethical/ culturally respectful help)

-Egalitarian Relationship --> occur when the client’s + counselor’s balance of power is somewhat equalized

Counseling Goals for Diverse Clients:

-Counselors should construct the goals of counseling with the client and should reflect the client’s worldview, cultural orientation and current environment

-Possible appropriate goals for Multicultural Counseling --> symptom remission, social identity development, bicultural identity development and cultural congruence

- Possible appropriate goals for Social Justice Counseling --> removal of exterior barriers such as discriminatory policies and practices that impede client well-being

-Empowerment is a commonly mentioned goal of both multicultural and social justice counseling

Advocacy Skills and Interventions:

-Both multicultural + social justice counseling has called counselors to include advocacy within the scope of their practice

-Advocacy --> the act of empowering individuals or groups through actions that increase self-efficacy, remove barriers to needed services, + promote systemic change

-Advocacy occurs at the microlevel, mesolevel and macrolevels, which include the client/student level, school/community level, + the public information/ social/ political levels.

-Counselors who undertake advocacy must be persistent, persuasive, collaborative, assertive +resourceful

-Psychoanalysis: Human Personality --> ID, Ego and Superego

-5 Psychosexual stages --> Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency + Genital

-Defense Mechanisms

-->Compartmentalization, Compensation, Denial, Displacement, Intellectualization, Projection, Rationalization, Reaction Formation, Regression, Repression + Sublimation

-Transference (feelings client has towards counselor) + Countertransference (feelings counselor has towards client)

-Goal of Psychoanalytic Theory in Counseling: client self-awareness + understanding of the influence of the past on present behavior

Jungian Analytical Theory (Carl Jung):

-Links conscious and unconscious aspects of an individual in a search for life’s meaning and takes collective influences into account.

-Psychosocial stages --> Childhood, Adolescence, Middle age + Old age

- The Psyche --> The Personal Conscious, The Ego, The Personal Unconscious + The Collective Unconscious

-Archetypes --> Instinctual and often lay dormant until activated by a life event (4 Archetypes: shadow, anima, animus + self)

-Goals of Jungian Analysis are individuation and the integration of the personal conscious with personal unconscious- to achieve a balanced life

Adlerian Theory (Alfred Adler):

-Adler founded individual psychology which is a social theory that provides framework for understanding a person within his or her environment, thus providing guidance for improving both the individual’s psychological state and his or her connectedness to the social environment

-Adler’s approach to human development --> lifestyle, birth order, family constellation + early recollections

-Remembrances --> subjective interpretation of memories can be used to indicate how a person views self and others

-Adler emphasized the importance of where a person is going rather than where they came from

-Inferiority feelings --> motivate a person to strive towards mastery, superiority and completion

-Gemeinschaftsgefuhl --> refers to social interest/ community feeling (central idea of Adler’s Theory)

-Human Personality Theory --> explanation of inferiority feeling, understanding of inferiority, + social interest

-Ludwig Binswanger was the first existential psychiatrist --> indicated that the most important focus was on the individual’s unique experience

-Victor Frankl --> key individual in development of existential theory --> logotherapy, indicated that humans are likely to live hollow lives without meaning which makes them experience pleasure-seeking, suffering, depression + hopelessness. He believed psychological disorders were a manifestation of a loss of meaning in one’s life

-Existential Counseling Therapies --> Humanistic Existentialism, Psychoanalytic/ Psychodynamic Existentialism, Transpersonal Existentialism

-Existentialists do not propose discrete stages, finding meaning has developmental markers + implications

-Major Constructs --> death/life, freedom/responsibility, isolation/connection, meaning/meaninglessness, authenticity/vulnerability + existential relationships

- I-to-Thou Relationships --> provide hope for genuine understanding and healing, the counselor is a guide + a traveler on the same road

-Intervention Strategies --> presence, dream-work + closure

- Mental Illnesses that benefit from Existential Psychotherapy --> anxiety, depression, addictions, trauma + loss

-Existentialism requires individuals to face their fears, anxieties + responsibilities + to realize that change is a lifelong process

-Existential Approach focuses on the interpersonal nature of counseling + psychotherapy + provides the client with insight throughout the therapeutic relationship

-Goals of existential counseling/psychotherapy --> confront anxieties about the givens of existence, be authentic + gain meaning from the common everyday endeavors and pain

-Change Process -> change evolves from a client’s willingness to participate in the interpersonal encounter

-Existentialists are still building research to validate their approach- some are concerned it lacks specific techniques/ planning or seem unfocused

-Existentialism helps people cope with the uncertainty and complex pressures of their lives

- Theoretical pillars of Gestalt Theory -> Phenomenology, Existentialism, Field Theory + Dialogue

-Gestalt Theory is attentive to the holistic nature of humankind

-Developmental Mind --> Individuals can cope with their life problems especially if they are fully aware of what is happening in + around them (centered in the present + processing who you are in the here + now)

-Major Constructs --> Field Theory, Differentiation + Contact, Confluence, Boundaries, Dichotomies + Polarities, Foreground + Background, Awareness, Responsibility, Shoulds + I-Thou What and How Here and Now

-“Good Gestalt” --> achieving a high level of development in terms of perception, creation, thought, production, and clarity in Gestalt Therapy

-Perls Focus on Examining 5 Elements in Therapy --> bad faith, phobia, stagnation, implosiveness + explosiveness

-Paradoxical Theory of Change --> change cannot occur until one first accepts things as they truly are

-Interventions are called “Experiments” and are conducted through counselor recommendations or suggestions for focusing awareness that clients can use to heighten intensity, power, flexibility + creativity

-Since Gestalt Therapy is action oriented, it can be similar to cognitive behavior therapies, therefore brief therapy benefits can be derived

-Gestalt Therapy helps clients gain insight + interpersonal awareness which can help facilitate lifestyle changes

-Gestalt Therapy works best for overly socialized, restrained + constricted individuals who intellectualize and have trouble clarifying their feelings

-Gestalt Therapy can be used with mood disorders, anxiety disorders, somatoform disorders, factitious disorders, adjustment disorders + some personality disorders + personality traits

-People are viewed as fully in charge of their lives --> the choice to change relies on the individual
-Carl Roger’s researched confirmed the idea that the conditions present in the helping relationship did have a significant effect on both the progress of counseling and the outcomes for clients

-5 key beliefs --> People are trustworthy, movement toward actualization, inner resources, an individually perceived world + interaction with external factors

-The Person-Centered Theory is a set of beliefs about people and relationships, not a series of programmable verbal/behavioral techniques

-Major Constructs --> No two people can see the world exactly alike, empathic understanding is critical, people make simple mistakes in judgement, place confidence in the client, the perceived world of the client may not approximate the world sought + congruent individuals trust their worldview

-The Phenomenological perspective --> people see the world in their own unique perspective (similar belief to the multicultural perspective)

-Person-Centered clients are treated as effective human beings who are able to grow and succeed regardless of the nature of their difficulties

-Goal of Person-Centered Therapy --> movement from incongruence to congruence in those who have psychological or sociological difficulties

-Acceptance of strengths and weaknesses as legitimate and evolving parts in positive nature --> reduces distortions in view of the world and greater accuracy of view of themselves, others, ideas, etc

-Process of Change --> genuineness, acceptance + caring and empathetic understanding

-Traditional Intervention Strategies --> active listening, reflection of content + feelings, immediacy, genuineness + self-disclosure, personalized counselor actions + non-client-centered interventions

-Brief Intervention Strategies + Current Practices --> implementation of core conditions, introduction of constraints, group work + the emergence of neuroscience

-Rogers emphasized the importance of hearing and seeing all of the client interaction

-B.F. Skinner believed that behavior develops only as the individual’s environment develops

-Behavior-analytic theory are like natural science theories and are used deductively to explain phenomena too complex to study directly in a laboratory

-Areas of infant and child development explained by behavior-analytic theory --> infant memory, perceptual development, cognitive development, social, emotional + moral development, language development, perspective taking + theory of mind (ToM)

-Operant Learning has allowed researchers and theorists to produce their own data regarding a wide range of infant behaviors, which has provided them with methodological, experimental and theoretical tools

-Operant Theory provides explanations of a variety of cognitive processes (example: object permanence)

-Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) has revolutionized the education, treatment and care of young children

-B.F. Skinner applied operant theory to education and teaching which have been incorporated by educators and scholars especially with developing children and those with special needs

-Operant researchers found great success in sleep problems in young children which eliminates the use of sleeping medication for “bedtime resistance)

-Operant researchers have addressed antisocial and aggressive behavior in young children and adolescents

-Operant learning has successfully been applied to --> childhood enuresis, motor ticks, ADHD, gun safety skills to reduce gun play, abduction-prevention skills, and racial integration

-Researchers have developed larger systems based on operant learning principles to tackle societal problems involving children such as --> Food Dude’s, Good Behavior Game, Project 12-Ways and Project SafeCare

-Behavior-analytic/ operant theory is now mature and sophisticated that can bring theoretical uniformity to the diverse sub-areas of developmental psychology

-B.F Skinner’s discoveries have made the most significant contribution to the understanding of early childhood development, education and treatment

-“Cognitive-behavioral” refers to the hybrid of behavioral strategies and cognitive processes

-In order for a therapy to be cognitive-behavioral, it must be based on the idea that cognitions play in the development and maintenance of psychological problems

-John B Watson --> most influential person in the development of behaviorism (Little Albert experiment)

- B. F. Skinner --> operant conditioning

-Joseph Wolpe --> systematic desensitization

-Behavior is assumed to be developed + maintained by external events or cues, by external reinforcers, or by internal processes such as cognition

-Cognitive-behavioral interventions --> considered to encompass a range of approaches limited by the purer behavioral + cognitive interventions

-CBT’S provide --> flexibility in treatment targets + interventions with an emphasis on rigorous standards in the measurement of change and research evaluation

-Cognitive behavior therapies share 3 propositions --> cognitive activity affects behavior, cognitive activity may be monitored and altered, desired behavior change may be affected through cognitive change

-Cognitive-behavioral interventions --> directive, structured, goal-oriented, collaborative therapeutic relationship + time-limited

-Before selecting a goal for counseling or psychotherapy or conducting any intervention with the client, a counselor using a CBT orientation begins with developing a conceptualization or understanding of the case

-5 components of Cognitive Behavior Therapy Case Formulation --> problem list, diagnosis, working hypothesis, strengths and assets +treatment plan

-The most critical part of case conceptualization is the working hypothesis section because it presents the connections between the issues on the problem list

-Behavioral Interventions --> reinforcement, extinction, shaping, stimulus/aversive control

-Cognitive Interventions --> thought-stopping, positive self-statements

-DBT is considered a principle or theory-driven therapy (guided by behavior theory)

-Goal of DBT --> teach healthy coping skills to help clients manage intense emotions without the use of self-destructive behavior, with the ideal result being improved relationships

-The Cycle of Dysregulation: Trigger --> Emotional Dysregulation --> Avoidance or Escape --> Problem Behavior --> Temporary Relief

-Support oriented approach --> emphasizes each individual’s unique strengths

-Main components --> affect regulation, distress tolerance, improvement in interpersonal relationships and mindfulness training

-Problem solving strategies, Validation strategies, Dialectical strategies

Reality Therapy/ Choice Theory: (William Glasser, practical method based on theory/research that aims to help people take better charge of their lives and fulfill their needs)

-In 1965, Glasser published a book that emphasized people are responsible for their own behavior and they cannot blame past/outside forces

-Fundamental principle --> human needs are the source of all human behavior

-Choice Theory --> psychology built on principles that emphasize current motivation for human choices

Goal of therapy --> to help clients fulfill their needs- counselor helps clients explore current behaviors related to belonging, power, fun and freedom

-Main principles --> present orientation, emphasis on choice, control of action, the importance of relationship

Narrative Therapy: (created by Michael White and David Epson in the 1970s, has roots in family therapy and postmodernism)

-Main purpose --> to interpret and alter the stories people create to make sense of their lives

-Use of reflective questions for considering cultural interpretation of life experiences

-Two forms of narrative coherence --> thematic and autobiographical

-Identification stabilization occurs when individuals narrate their experiences juxtaposed against their own identity

-Narrative counselor can help clients externalize the problem --> this helps clients separate themselves from the problem

-Feminist counseling was not founded by a specific person, theoretical position or set of techniques

-Feminist Theory went through three distinct phases --> radical, liberal and moderate

-Since the late 1980’s, there has been a movement within feminist theory that acknowledges feminine potential, focuses on equality, and acknowledges many of the shared problems of women created by a society that does not value them

-Recognizes that women and men are not socialized the same and that gender expectations begin to influence human development from the day a child is born

-Feminist counselor’s commitment of core principles --> the personal is political, a commitment to social change, egalitarian relationships, honor women’s voices and ways of knowing, and recognize all types of oppression

-Overall purpose --> help clients change by making choices based on their own personal experiences and strengths

-Goals of Feminist Counseling --> change, equality, balancing independence and interdependence, empowerment, self-nurturance and valuing diversity

-Change process --> external forces are the root problem for women; clients learn self-appreciation, self-value, learn to change their environments, learn to advocate for social change and develop egalitarian relationships

-Strategies for Feminist Counselors --> empowerment, gender-role analysis, power analysis, and integrated analysis of oppression

-Solution-Focused Counseling: developed from brief therapy tradition in the 1970s by Steve de Shazar and Insoo Kim Berg

-Factors that cause change in clients --> extratherapeutic factors, the client’s view of the therapeutic relationship, therapeutic technique and the client’s expectations regarding hope

-Solution-Focused therapy plays on the idea of social constructivism and encourages the client to look past the problem in the present and focus on how reality will look once the problem is solved

-The Solution-Focused approach motivates the client internally by kindling feelings of hope and will and externally by encouraging client to use outside factors like social support

-Solution-Focused Approach --> focuses on solutions, goal directed and future-oriented in nature

-Focuses on the interconnectedness of thinking, feeling + behaving --> emotional distress results from dysfunctional thought processes

-Albert Ellis --> “grandfather” of cognitive behavior therapy and founder of REBT

-REBT is based on the assumption that humans have a biological tendency to think irrationally or dysfunctionally, as well as rationally or functionally

-Self-demandingness, other-demandingness +world demandingness

-Major construct of REBT is developing a rational philosophy of life --> helps people increase happiness and decrease emotional distress

-REBT helps people give up dysfunctional beliefs that can lead to emotional disturbances and ineffectual behaviors

-Irrational beliefs --> emanate from environmental + genetic factors, they are maintained from people rehearsing them without changing their thinking patterns

-2 Categories of psychological disturbances --> ego disturbance + discomfort disturbance

- 7 principles of REBT Theory --> cognition is the most significant determinant of human emotions, irrational thinking is the major cause of emotional distress, the best way to change disturbed emotions is to change the way one thinks, multiple factors contribute to irrational thinking +psychopathology, the two types of emotions are helpful, functional, healthy and adaptive versus unhelpful, dysfunctional, unhealthy and maladaptive, present influences on emotions rather than past influences, and irrational beliefs can be changed to rational beliefs by reversing thinking

- Goal of REBT Therapy --> help clients develop a rational philosophy of life that will reduce their emotional distress + self-defeating behavior + result in the ability to lead a happier/more fulfilling life

-Rapport is more important in REBT than most other forms of therapy because it is counselor’s role to be active and involved as they educate clients (egalitarian)

- The A-B-C Model --> it is not the activating event (A) that creates the emotional + behavioral consequences (C) but rather the beliefs (B) people hold about these activating events

- 5 types of disbeliefs --> demandingness, awfulizing, frustration intolerance, self-condemnation, + other-condemnation