Unit 1 Timeline by Kaitlyn Chavez

Scientific Revolution (1500-1700)

1069266_1 — 2025-09-10 17:03:01 UTC

The scientific revolution was a period of transformation that first arose in Europe. This period marked the birth of the Scientific Method. The scientific method is a way to view and understand the world, using measurable, rational, observation and exploration. This period marked the beginning of using science and rationality over tradition. Various experiements were conducted which led to the invention of important tools, the discovery of various things, and an improved way of life. In medicine, the scientific revolution changed the way people understood the human body via dissections and experiments. Medical breakthroughs occured, with inventions such as vaccinations and anesthetics.

ageofrevolution.org

www.worldhistory.org

Age of Enlightenment (1680–1820)

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The Enlightenment was a period in France, Britain, and various European countries that was based on the idea that rationality could improve humanity. This time period led to people questioning traditional authority. Its significance is rooted in the countless books, essays, inventions, discoveries, laws, wars, and revolutions that came from this period. Its impact on medicine is most noticeable in the ideas that arose from it. The Enlightenment introduced Empiricism, which is the idea that we learn from experience. Enlightenment thinkers, such as John Hunter, encouraged students to experiment with how the body reacted, and this practice still influences how surgeons perform surgery today.

https://www.history.com/articles/enlightenment

https://www.rcseng.ac.uk/-/media/files/rcs/museums-and-shop/hunterian/exhibition-archive/exhibiting-difference/the-enlightenment-and-medicine.pdf

Isaac Newton (January 4, 1643 - March 31, 1727)

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Isaac Newton was most notably an English mathematician and scientist, who is best known for the invention of calculus and for his theories on universal gravity and laws of motion. His most influential work was called the Principia, and is regarded as the most important work in the transformation of early modern natural philosophy into modern physical science. His contributions are important because they forever changed these fields into what they are today. Newton was also known for his contributions in other areas, such as chemical/alchemical research, theology, and biblical studies. Newton's contributions to medicine were primarily from his scientific ideas, which changed approaches to medical teaching.

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/newton/

https://newton.edwardworthlibrary.ie/reading-newton/newton-and-physicians/

John Locke (August 29, 1632 - October 28, 1704)

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John Locke was one of the most famous and influential philosophers of the 17th century. John Locke is best known for his ideas on Empiricism, which is the idea that people get their knowledge through experiences and explorations of the world. John Locke also was influential in other aspects such as theology, religious toleration, and educational theory. His most notable political influence was by being the pioneer of ideas such as natural rights and social contract. These were essential concepts as they contributed heavily to the foundations of government--even including our own. Locke's most famous work is called 'the Essay Concerning Human Understanding', where he touches on the mind and how we acquire our knowledge. Since Locke was also a physician, many of his theories and ideas arose from his experiences with medicine and patients. Caring for patients increased his respect for humans and formed his ideas that everyone had the right to "life, liberty, and property". It also tempered his trust in experts, including government officials, on what they believed was best for others. In turn, his ideas set the stage for better attitudes/care towards people (including patients), and influenced doctors to take more empirical approaches to their practice.

https://iep.utm.edu/locke/

https://firstamendment.mtsu.edu/article/john-locke/

https://www.econlib.org/library/columns/y2023/gundermanlocke.html

John Hunter (February 13, 1728 -October 16, 1793)

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John Hunter was a Scottish surgeon, who was best known for his medical/scientific discoveries, teachings, and vast museum collection used by medical students. Some of his notable works include: The Natural History of the Human Teeth (1771), A Treatise on the Venereal Disease (1786), Observations on Certain Parts of the Animal Oeconomy (1786). and A Treatise on the Blood, Inflammation, and Gun-shot (1794). Despite not having a medical degree, Hunter is regarded as one of the most influential people in medicine. His exploration and discoveries revolved around comparative aspects of biology, anatomy, physiology, and pathology. Comparative biology is the study of the relationship between the structure and function in living creatures. This was the early study of evolutionary biology. Hunter emphasized that surgeons should understand how the body adapts to and makes up for harm caused by injury, disease, and even environment. He encouraged medical students to research experimentally and use that knowledge towards their patients. This idea was important because it was later used by many physicians, even those such as Edward Jenner (the inventor of the smallpox vaccine and pioneer of modern vaccinations.) Hunter's contributions to surgical practice and the encouragement of evidence-based medicine, close observation, and experimentation set the stage for the foundation of modern medicine.

https://hunterianmuseum.org/about/john-hunter

https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Hunter-British-surgeon

Montesquieu (18 January 1689 – 10 February 1755)

1069266_1 — 2025-10-10 05:39:06 UTC

Montesquieu was a French philosopher and regarded as the first sociologist. He is best known for his ideas, which helped to start the His ideas on the separation of powers, that is, between The Enlightenment. His most notable idea was the division of power: The government was to be split into branches, executive, legislative, and judiciary. This played an important role in the way the U.S government runs today, and the separation of powers is a protective measure of a citizen's rights. One of his most notable works was called Persian Letters, which criticized absolute monarchs. While the work focuses on the Persian Government, it serves as a reminder of how the same could happen in the French government, where the citizens have little rights. Montesquieu argues that reason is a better tool than faith to govern how we live morally, and he encourages toleration of different religious views. Above all, he argues that natural law should rule humanity's thinking, and the individual dignities of both men and women should be the main concern of rulers. Montesquieu is also regarded as the founder of political science. His most famous work, The Spirit of the Laws, combines history, anthropology, and political theory. Montesquieu encouraged finding a better way to govern a state. Montesquieu is known as a pioneer in public health, due to his interest in the field and his various ideas that align with its values.

https://www.worldhistory.org/Montesquieu/

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18348488/#:~:text=%5BMontesquieu%2C%20sciences%20and%20medicine%20in,public%20health%20and%20professional%20diseases.

Voltaire (November 21, 1694 -- May 30, 1778)

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Voltaire was considered one of the greatest French writers. He is best known for his stances against tyranny, bigotry, and cruelty. His works and activities influenced the direction European governments were heading in. His focus was in teaching readers to think critically and rationally. Through his lifetime plagued with illness, Voltaire believed medicine was a noble science while simultaneously criticizing its practices He encouraged people to forget superstition and theory rather and focus themselves in reason and observation. He urged physicians to embrace empirical methods, calling for rationality in health just as in politics and religion. Voltaire’s contributions were most significant within public health, however. He would write constantly for smallpox inoculation, despite France's wary stance. Voltaire is known as one of the first people for preventive medicine. Voltaire popularized a preventive approach to health and spoke upon the relationship medicine had with philosophy, politics, and culture.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Voltaire/Legacy

https://hekint.org/2025/09/16/voltaire-medical/

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712—1778)

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Jean-Jacques Rousseau was an important thinker throughout the Enlightenment. Rousseau argued that the progression of science and art caused a corruption within virtue and morality. He is also known for his argument on how human beings are basically good by nature, but are corrupted by the complex historical events. His writing influenced movements such as the Romantic Naturalism movement, and the French Revolution. In regards to health, Rousseau believed in an interrelation of the body and mind. For Rousseau, the body and mind are not independent. Many people regard Rousseau as influential within medicine because of explanations of experiences and relations through which bodies become healthy and men become virtuous.

https://iep.utm.edu/rousseau/#H7

https://concept.journals.villanova.edu/article/view/1881/1760

Benjamin Franklin (January 17, 1706 – April 17, 1790)

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Benjamin Franklin was an American printer, publisher, author, inventor, scientist, and diplomat. Most importantly, he is regarded as one of the founding fathers. Franklin was most know for helping draft, sign, and represent the Declaration of Independence. Not only that, but his writings, discoveries, and inventions within science are also notable. His most important contributions to science are in understanding electricity.

Within health, Franklin was known for his advice on various health-related issues, from treatment of the common cold to promotion of exercise and a moderate diet. He was considered a medical activist and inventor, promoting smallpox inoculation, helping create one of the first hospitals in the colonies, and even invented bifocal glasses. He is regarded as an important figure within early public health.

https://benjaminfranklin.yale.edu/about-us/about-benjamin-franklin

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Benjamin-Franklin

https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1299336/

Cotton Mather (February 12, 1663 – February 13, 1728)

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Cotton Mather was a puritan minister and author. He is best known for combining mysticism with modern science. He believed witchcraft was a thing, but also believed in practices like small pox occultation (which many were hesitant of.) He also had an interest in medicine and considered becoming a physician, until he ultimately returned to religious studies. Mather continued to have interest in science and in various American phenomena-- as written in one of his most notable works, Curiosa Americana. Mather continued to document and publish inoculation episodes, and continued to work with notable scientists. His impact comes from believing in both philosophy and science.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cotton-Mather

Colonial Sanitation Laws in Boston (1800s)

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Illnesses such as cholera, dysentery and typhoid were extremely common in Boston due to the unsanitary conditions that came with living in an urban, populated city with no modern sanitation. Between 1846 and 1863, several cholera outbreaks the United States, causing millions of deaths. Outbreaks were common as a result of no sewer systems. By the 19th century, many urban areas had adopted a dry sewerage system in which residents transported their waste to a special area in order to try and stop contamination. After outbreaks in 1849 and 1866, Boston began to look towards a better sewerage system to protect its residents from disease. By 1875, Boston began a study of pollution and water contamination causing health issues and disease. This started a new sanitation system, which was completed and functional by 1884. The Shattuck Report and the Massachusetts Sanitary Commission in 1850 was the first look at public health and was considered the first attempt at a public health code in Boston, and in the nation.

https://www.educatingforamericandemocracy.org/primary-source/the-shattuck-report-1850/

https://blogs.umb.edu/pumpingstation/category/early-sanitation-in-boston/

American Revolution Smallpox Inoculations (1700s) (specifically 1777)

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During the 1700s, smallpox was a prominent killer within American colonies and even the Continental Army, especially during the Revolutionary War. Inoculation had already been a thing years before. in 1721, Bostonian doctors and clergy introduced it to the colonies, but it had already been a thing in Europe. These early Bostonian's efforts in normalizing inoculation were a major factor as to why Washington made the decision to mandate inoculation for his Continental Army in 1777. This event of occultation was so significant, many Americans do not believe we would have won the revolutionary war without it. This is referred to as the first medical mandate in American history, with the help of congress. Inoculations were oftentimes performed by military doctors in five day intervals, typically within private homes and churches they deemed as isolation centers. These inoculations were kept secret to protect against the British attacking the weakened army.

By late 1777, the procedure had been established in the Continental Army, and cases of the disease reduced drastically, which prevented major outbreaks. This event was significant in the way it pioneered various modern medical practices to this day.

https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/smallpox-inoculation-revolutionary-war.htm

Declaration of Independence ratified (July 4, 1776)

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The Declaration of Independence was drafted by Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Robert R. Livingston, and Roger Sherman, with Jefferson in charge of actually writing it. On July 4th 1776, the Declaration was ratified. This document set the stage for the American Revolution, and ultimately, was significant in everything from government to medicine.

https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/declaration-of-independence

U.S. Constitution is ratified (June 21st, 1788)

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The US constitution was written in 1787, ratified in 1788, and has been in operation since 1789. the United States Constitution is regarded as the world’s longest surviving written charter of government. Its first three words of “We The People” affirm that the government of the United States exists to serve its citizens. Article I creates a Congress consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives. Congress is responsible for organizing the executive and judicial branches, raising revenue, declaring war, and making all laws necessary for executing these powers. The president is allowed to veto specific acts, but Congress has the authority to override presidential vetoes by 2/3 majorities of both houses. The Constitution continues to grow and change to meet the changing needs of modern society, as opposed to the 18th century. The preamble of the U.S. Constitution states, “We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.” This puts an emphasis on the United States protecting its citizens, and is used as an argument for universal healthcare.

https://www.senate.gov/about/origins-foundations/senate-and-constitution/constitution.htm

https://www.thepeople.org/blog-civics-u/thegeneralwelfare

https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7798178/

Bill of Rights is ratified (December 15, 1791)

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The bill of rights is composed of amendments, which were ratified on December 15, 1791. It is known as the bill of rights and is significant to allow for the constitution to change with the needs of the people. It's significance is equally as impactful in other fields, such as medicine.

https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/bill-of-rights/how-did-it-happen