Anatomy Group Assessment Group 52 - The Study and Development of Organoids by Grimmond-Thompson, Isaiah https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32 en-us 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC 2025-04-08 18:12:35 UTC hello@padlet.com https://padlet.net/icons/png/1f9e0.png 4. Spinal cord organoids isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151552 Spinal cord organoids can be formed by combining induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), derived neural and non-neural cells. This can form a replica of a mature human spinal cord. [1]

]]> 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151552 3. Applications of neural organoids isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151554 Examining the morphogenesis of an organ can provide useful insight into its development, and how they function at a cellular level.

Therefore this understanding of disease mechanisms can be understood, and treatments can be curated.

]]> 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151554 ITT (1) isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151558 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151558 Limitations of Organoid Development isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151560 Challenges of Organoid Research
Madeline G. Andrews and Arnold R. Kriegstein
Annual Review of Neuroscience 2022 45:1, 23-39 
(1)
]]> 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151560 Defining Consciousness & its Importance (6) isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151561 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151561 High fidelity cell types isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151564
  • Specificity of gene expression are not yet perfectly replicated in organoid-derived cells (1)

    • ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151564     1. History and development of organoids - a timeline isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151565
    A lot of progress has been made with the development of organoids, beginning with Henry Van Peters Wilson showing sponge cells self organising into a whole organism [1]. Organoid research then advanced to the development of different human organoids [1] and is now at a stage where they are being transplanted into humans [3]. Despite all this, there is still a long way to go with organoid research before they can be widely used in clinical settings.

    ‌
    ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151565     Limited Maturation isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151566
  • it does not accurately reflect the developmental events of typical human growth, occurring more rapidly than normal, especially relating to neural organoids. (1)

    • ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151566     Atypical Physiology isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151567
  • specifically the distribution of cells in cortical layers being in multiple rosettes, instead of continuous layers as typical of the human brain. (1)

    • ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151567     Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA) isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151569
  • This disorder is caused by mutations affecting levels of spinal motor neurons. This can result in paralysis or death in extreme cases.
  • Spinal organoid models can be derived to observe development of the patient’s motor neurons and for testing what small molecules can help increase motor neuron levels. [2]
    • ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151569     isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151570 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151570 Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151572
  • ALS affects motor neurons, resulting in progressive muscle weakness. The condition has an average survival rate of about 3 years after symptoms onset. [3]
  • Organoids derived from patients with ALS have shown irregular neuromuscular junctions. [4]
    • ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151572     Studying brain development isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151573 Studying Brain Development:
    The development of neural organoids has allowed researchers to gain a deeper understanding of the functioning of the human brain during development (4). Since neural organoids are similar to the human brain at a molecular and cellular level, researchers can study the mechanisms underlying brain development, which will then allow them to understand, how certain neurological disorders arise (4). 

    ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151573     Function of FUS in Neurodevelopment isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151574
  • Fused in sarcoma (FUS) is a protein that is involved in regulating transcription and processing RNA. 
  • ALS patients usually have mutated FUS in the cytoplasm of affected neurons.  
  • Reducing levels of FUS in a spinal cord organoid decreased neural proliferation and differentiation, suggesting that FUS is important for those roles. [9]
    • ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151574     Application of organoids on the pharmaceutical industry isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151575 Drug Discovery:
    Neural organoids or organoids, have been used and tested in mice against cancer with personalized drug treatment. As the organoid will closely mimic the genetics of the mouse, it can be used to see what drug or treatment, would be most effective, to deal with different diseases, whilst mitigating as many side effects as possible(1).

    ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151575     Future Advancements isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151576 Neural organoids could be developed further in the future by incorporating vascularization, as this would mimic the in vivo environment of a real life brain (4) .Recently, researchers have developed microglia- containing human brain organoids, (MC-HBOs) as microglia play a key role as the immune defence, in the central nervous system (5) .This allows researchers to study diseases using a more reproducible and accurate model, which encapsulates the main features of the human brain.

    ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151576     Drug Testing isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151577
  • Spinal cord organoids can be used for toxicology screening.
    • The effects of antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) were trialled on spinal cord organoid models. The models were treated with 3 concentrations of 6 selected AEDs. Results showed that two types of AEDs resulted in neural tube closure failure after 8 days of treatment. These results were consistent with clinical risks of AEDs. [7]
    • ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151577     isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151578 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151578 Neurotoxicity Testing isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151579
  • Usually, neurotoxicity is dependent on animal models, which has several disadvantages. This includes differences in anatomy, ethical concerns and costs.
  • Advancements of neural organoids allow testing of chemicals that can affect human CNS development. Using spinal cord organoids has helped visualise the potential risk of neural tube defects. [8]
    • ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151579     Spinal Cord Neurogenesis isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151580
  • The cellular composition of the spinal cord organoids were investigated through immunostaining at different stages. As the organoids matured, an apical-to-basal patterning was seen. [2]
    • ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151580     2. How cerebral organoids are generated isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151581 To generate a cerebral organoid, embryonic stem cells are used. In normal embryonic development, the nervous system develops from ectoderm.

    Hence, the stem cells are placed in neuroectoderm encouraging broth, grown in a gel scaffold, spun in a bioreactor to distribute O2 and nutrients to maintain viability.

    Rich populations of radial glial cells are present during growth, helping increase the number of developing neurons [2].

    ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151581     Cerebral organoids show brain regionalisation isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151582 During development, extracellular signalling at different stages can dictate development of specific regions [4].

    These regions include the choroid plexus, hippocampus and frontal brain. Photosensitive cells can be developed, mimicking a structure similar to the retina.

    Genetic markers can be added to outline certain regions [6] to see how the organoid develops.


    ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151582     isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151583 Research was carried out on organoids with functional neuromuscular junctions, which were then exposed to different ALS subgroups. This allowed identification of different structures such as motor neurons and skeletal muscle. [4] 

    ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151583     Cell types isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151585 Throughout development, various cell types begin to differentiate. These include astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, glutamatergic neurons and various others.

    In addition, synapses and dendritic spines, structural traits of mature neurons, were also found around 8 months into development, suggesting that the mature brain organoid can be used to investigate more advanced nervous functions [7].]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151585     Advantages isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151586 It can partly recapitulate DV and AP patterning of the neural tube. [8]]]> 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151586 Disadvantages isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151587 They can’t undergo full patterning, have high variability in formed organoids and high tissue heterogeneity. [8]]]> 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151587 isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151589 During development, the spinal cord is formed via neurulation. Errors during early neurulation can lead to neural tube defects (NTDs). Use of organoids can lead to better understanding of human development. [7]]]> 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151589 isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151590 Research has been conducted on mice but there is limited correlation between mice and human mutations. [7]]]> 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151590 Spinal Cord Injury (SCI) isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151591
  • Spinal cord injury treatment can be trialled via organoids, which can be used to visualise the effects of used biomaterials.
    • Spinal cord spheroids can be differentiated into dorsal, intermediate and ventral spinal cord units by restricting the direction of differentiation. [5]
    • ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151591     Regeneration isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151592
  • Matured cerebral organoids were used to repair small sections of the spinal cord.
  • Cerebral organoids were transplanted to the spinal cord sections. The cerebral organoids fused with the spinal cord tissue.
    • Research showed that successful fusion between tissues is selective. The cortical organoids were more likely to fuse with the spinal cord organoids compared to the skeletal muscle organoids. [6]
    • ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151592     isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151594 Cerebral organoids were used because the cerebral cortex and spinal cord have similar physiological properties. [6] 

    ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151594     Regenerative medicine isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151595 Another aspect of such is in regenerative medicine, where organoids can be used to heal or replace, damaged or scarred tissue, within the body. ]]> 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151595 Would you beat a brain organoid at pong? isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151596 Consisting of around 800,000 neurons, a group of researchers managed to make a cerebral organoid capable of playing Pong! [1]

    Using electrodes, the electrical signals and subsequent cellular changes were converted into a visual representation, shown in the video linked.

    It's a long way away from the 80-100 billion neurons of a human, but it is a promising step towards developing more complex brains, or even developing more advanced AI! ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151596     isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151598 Summary for cellular composition and tissue type in brain organoid

    ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151598     isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151599 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9ksLuRoEq6A&ab_channel=NewScientist]]> 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151599 Organisation isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151600 Organoids self organise during development through 'cell sorting' and 'spatially restricted lineage commitment'.

    At different periods of time, different types and volumes of cells develop e.g primarily neurons are generated during early development, versus glial cells during later stages [3].]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151600     isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151602 Anatomy of the inside of the brain, showing the pineal and pituitary glands, optic nerve, ventricles (with cerebrospinal fluid shown in blue), and other parts of the brain.]]> 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151602 isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151603 Human cerebral organoids and the various brain regions marked by genetic markers. They are present in different stages of development such as initially where PAX6 shows neural induction or AUTS2 showing the cerebral cortex.

    Genetic markers for the hippocampus, ventral forebrain, and choroid plexus are also present in cerebral organoids, however, the overall structures of these regions have not yet been formed at this stage of development.

    ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151603     Ethical Considerations of Brain Organoids (1) isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151604 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151604 Machines & AI vs. Organoids (1) isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151606 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151606 The Holy Grail of Medical Science isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151607 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151607 Potential Benefits, Dangers & Additional Dilemmas (7) isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151608 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151608 isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151610
  • epistemologically, some experts argue that the logic used for comatose patients should be applied to organoids. (2)
  • however, this is highly diminutive, and many argue that there needs to be a developed, objective index of brain-based consciousness that doesn't rely on motor outputs, sensory processing, or executive functions. 
    • ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151610     isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151611 Some schools of thought argue that intelligence is the key aspect of ‘humanity’, ie. the individual’s functional capacity of the subject in performing tasks. (2)]]> 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151611 BENEFITS (2) isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151612
  •  living beings aren’t destroyed/impaired
  • scientific reliability may be higher than the model organism's 
  • may be a more acceptable way to test hypotheses and carry out brain research, when compared to human fetuses, animals, or even voluntary adults
  • may very well be cheaper than certain large-scale trials
    • ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151612     isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151613 This aims to make it possible to transplant organs while overcoming problems of scarcity, compatibility, and rejection. 
    Though it is an incredible goal and could change many lives for the better, it is also a central debate topic for cerebral organoids specifically, since there are many moral and ethical issues with the manipulation of neural tissue. (3)

    ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151613     isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151615 The moral significance of consciousness is highly relevant, since the meaning of consciousness itself is debated. ]]> 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151615 isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151617
  • however, this falls short when considering machine learning and AI, whereby software and machinery can reach higher intellect than humans without having a consciousness (2)
  • of course, this is purely presumed, though this may change in the future and is a main point of contention amongst scientists and philosophers, and essentially all of mankind (4)
    • ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151617     isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151618 Now, there is a far reaching and relatively accepted theory of consciousness, called the Integrated Information Theory of Consciousness (IIT). (3)]]> 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151618 DANGERS (8) isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151619
  • potentially produce inaccurate results due to a shortcoming and provide inadequate information, which could be dangerous if the research is implemented 
  • as the technology develops, could lead to an actual issue whereby a fabricated brain develops something akin to consciousness, which would have great ethical ramifications
    • ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151619     Organoids: Process of Creation (1) isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151621 If this process could be improved (ie. the applications made more plentiful and the limitations decreased, the options for developing and researching neural organoids would expand greatly and have the chance to change many lives. (4)]]> 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151621 isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151622 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151622 isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151623 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151623 isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151624 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151624 isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151625 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151625 isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151626 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151626 isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151628 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151628 Reflection isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151629 REFLECTING ON OUR PROCESS

    FIRST IDEAS: During our first meeting, we discussed ideas for our anatomy Padlet. Our initial ideas included: ideal anatomy/physiology for living in space, ideal anatomy/physiology for a predator, organoids, regenerative medicine, anatomy in art and society

    NARROWING IT DOWN: Organoids were our main interest since they combined most of the concepts we wanted to investigate, and therefore we chose this topic.

    WHY BRAIN ORGANOIDS: We chose to research brain organoids as we thought it would be best to focus on one organ to ensure that our research was specific and easy for the reader to understand. If we had looked at other types of organoids (e.g. liver organoids), our Padlet would have contained too much detail and would therefore be less appealing to the reader. We chose to include Spinal cord organoids since they directly related to the topic at hand, but abstained from anything else.

    CHALLENGES: We had difficulty understanding the software since we had never faced it before (Padlet), but we persevered as a team to figure out the interface.

    OUR TEAMWORK:  We prioritized our more immediate coursework, but consistently met to discuss new ideas and offer suggestions, meeting goals set as a team. We each had some specific interests in the topic and allocated topics accordingly, helping each other along the way. To successfully finish this project, we set internal deadlines and met more often as the due date approached to ensure our work would demonstrate our best effort and be completed on time. ]]>     2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151629     isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151649 bop]]> 2023-03-23 16:34:06 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529151649 ORDER OF SECTIONS isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529424207 1. Start in the middle with the "History and development of organoids" section (white)

    2. Next, understanding "How organoids are generated" (purple)

    3. Then, "Applications of neural organoids" (blue) 

    4. Then, "Limitations of organoid development" (red)

    5. Next, "Spinal cord organoids" (green)

    6. Finally, "Ethical considerations of organoids" (purple)

    7. Reflection & Sources Section (yellow)]]>     2023-03-23 20:11:17 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529424207     isaiahgrimmondthompson1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529425871 2023-03-23 20:13:22 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2529425871 Modelling Neurological Diseases fathimamohamed_farzan1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2530569252 Additionally, neural organoids could be used to model various neurological diseases such as schizophrenia (6). Normally, the molecular mechanisms of schizophrenia were studied using animal models or by post mortem brain studies (6). However, these studies often lack reliability and validity as  tissues in post mortem studies could have structural abnormalities due to decay and animal models aren’t representative to human brains.

    ]]>     2023-03-24 15:08:19 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2530569252     Impossible - Or Not? blankabajkareynier1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2531484449
  • as proposed by philosopher Hilary Putnam, in the far future, the development of brains could lead to the highly unlikely but potentially possible event where a brain is put into a nutrient broth and connected to a supercomputer as a new form of machinery (2)
  • also, a brain could be connected to other organs and create a complex, or be implanted into animals to form chimeric animal models, thereby raising various additional moral and ethical questions (2)
    • ]]>     2023-03-25 21:41:49 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2531484449     Normal Spine: Side View (1) blankabajkareynier1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2532001381 2023-03-26 19:35:54 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2532001381 Normal Spine : Back View (1) blankabajkareynier1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2532014793 2023-03-26 20:02:19 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2532014793 Brain Organoids vs. Human Brain (1) blankabajkareynier1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2532015885 2023-03-26 20:04:22 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2532015885 wai14yan https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2532061012 Axons can be formed by cerebral organoids, shown to have complex branching and growth cone formation seen in Green Fluorescence Protein (GFP) staining.

    Spontaneous calcium surges and calcium oscillations have been shown to occur in organoids as well when calcium dyed]]>     2023-03-26 21:29:56 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2532061012     wai14yan https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2532829506 Left, a whole brain organoid imaged in bright field showing a lobe of cortical tissue developing. Right, a section through a lobe of cortical tissue, with neurons in green, neural stem cells in pink/red and nuclei stained blue.]]> 2023-03-27 09:57:46 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2532829506 wai14yan https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2532842524 2023-03-27 10:10:26 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2532842524 How far is too far? (9) blankabajkareynier1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2533233631 How to we determine the limitations of the technology to avoid the biggest ethical conundrum of them all: creating something too human.]]> 2023-03-27 14:46:23 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2533233631 Lack of Arealization isabellaokane https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2533283068 The current lack of organisation in the physical distribution of relevant genes, especially within neural organoids, limits the use of organoids in a clinical setting.
    More accurately patterned brain organisation is needed for use in accurate disease diagnoses. (1)]]>     2023-03-27 15:16:23 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2533283068     isabellaokane https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2533284439 On the other hand, in a study conducted by Sloane et al. 2017 where astrocytes taken from the brain, showed an accurate transformation from fetal to early postnatal development. After this period the rate of phagocytosis steadily declined, however.]]> 2023-03-27 15:17:14 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2533284439 isabellaokane https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2533289759 2023-03-27 15:20:28 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2533289759 isabellaokane https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2533291540 Limitations include:
    • High-fidelity cell types

    • Limited maturation 

    • Atypical physiology

    • Lack of arealization
    ]]>     2023-03-27 15:21:33 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2533291540     What are mini brains? isabellaokane https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2533315892 In this 5 minute-long video, the development of mini brain-organoids is explained, along with various limitations. 

    ]]>     2023-03-27 15:36:30 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2533315892     isabellaokane https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2533323629 For example, the tiny 1cm size of brain organoids, and only 100,000 neurones, means they lack the vast complexity of human brains, and can never therefore accurately reflect interactions with the outside world.]]> 2023-03-27 15:41:23 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2533323629 fathimamohamed_farzan1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2533461647 2023-03-27 17:12:04 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2533461647 fathimamohamed_farzan1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2533465197 This is a brain scan from a study where researchers implanted lab grown human neurons into the cortex of newborn rats (7) .Their aim was to see whether the human neurons could engage with the rat's, and it was successful. This study shows that growing more complex organoids in the future may be possible, which will let us study brain development in more detail than ever before.]]> 2023-03-27 17:14:30 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2533465197 Cerebral cortical neurons wai14yan https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2533487555 During development, cerebral cortical neurons begin to develop on the preplate, which then develops into the cortical plate. The cells are also reelin positive, a glycoprotein, secreted from Cajal-Retzius cells [8], involved in the correct organisation of the brain as it develops.]]> 2023-03-27 17:30:32 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2533487555 Genetic modification wai14yan https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2533556631 Cerebral organoids can also be genetically modified to study gene expression. It was found that the stage that the modifications occurred, as well as the medium in which the modifications were made, affected the development of the organoid. Those modified earlier resulted in a larger impact on the development of the organoid.

    'Long-lasting genetic modification' can be achieved through the Crispr/Cas9 method [9] as using 'genetic cargo' to insert mutations resulted in reduced modification ever round of cell division.

    ]]>     2023-03-27 18:16:31 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2533556631     Sources blankabajkareynier1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2537026899 (Google Document)
    https://docs.google.com/document/d/1DuZjb9Ockyvi3vfgECa1lOYKNnw4UMZYcugr2_Zzac8/edit]]>     2023-03-29 16:45:38 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2537026899     blankabajkareynier1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2537040427 More specifically in the digestive system with the potential to treat short bowel syndrome, or human inflammatory bowel disease, by using organoids to develop functional tissue to be reintroduced into the patient, for effective function(1)]]> 2023-03-29 16:56:02 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2537040427 blankabajkareynier1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2537044500 This aids in making the treatment ‘safe’, and through recent development, it will be used to curate medicine in humans against disease(1). ]]> 2023-03-29 16:59:11 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2537044500 blankabajkareynier1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2537055901 Studies where neural organoids have been developed from stem cells with disease causing mutations has allowed researchers to understand the pathology of neurological diseases. This can help us better understand the disease mechanisms such as changes in signalling pathways which could allow researchers to develop potential drug treatments.]]> 2023-03-29 17:07:11 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2537055901 fathimamohamed_farzan1 https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2537116175 Padlet made by Sabrin Cabdi, Wai Yan Oo, Fathima Farha Mohamed Farzan, Isaiah Grimmond-Thompson, Isabella O'Kane , Jasmee Navaratnarajah, Blanka Bajka-Reynier]]> 2023-03-29 17:48:46 UTC https://padlet.com/isaiahgrimmondthompson1/eqv3m1qbgg1urw32/wish/2537116175