Theory Combination & Intervention by

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Self-efficacy Theory

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Self-Determination Theory (SDT)

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Description

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The Individualized Zone of Optimal Functioning model suggests that each athlete has a unique zone of state anxiety (changing mood state) in which they perform their best. When the athlete falls out of their optimal zone, their performance decreases.

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The IZOF model has been extensively examined across cultures, individual and team sports, ages, and genders, indicating its international acceptance and adoption.

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Individualized Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF)

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The model has been used to identify optimal and non-optimal emotional states before, during, and after events, informing athletes and coaches about the impact of emotions on performance.

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Main Findings/Summary

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Practical applications of the IZOF model include interventions based on individualized assessments to help athletes achieve their peak performance states.

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Sources of Self-Efficay

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Performance accomplishments

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Vicarious experiences

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Verbal persuasion

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Physiological states

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Emotional states

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Imaginal experiences

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Description

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Bandura's self-efficacy theory is an individual's belief that they can complete a certain task successfully. Often self-efficacy & self-confidence are used interchangeably. Six principal sources make up a person's feeling of self-efficacy: performance accomplishments, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, imaginal experiences, physiological states, & emotional states.

Main Findings/Summary

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Affect declined throughout the first half of both exercise conditions, with a continued decline until the end of the unknown duration condition, where a rebound effect was observed.

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Hierarchical regression analyses showed that self-efficacy during exercise was a stronger predictor of affect during exercise than pre-exercise self-efficacy, with this relationship being strongest at the end of exercise when duration was unknown.

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Strategies to enhance self-efficacy perceptions, such as minimizing ambiguity about the exercise task and maximizing perceptions of control, can improve the affective experience of exercise, especially for low-active individuals during the adoption phase of an exercise program

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Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET)

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Combined Intervention

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Combining IZOF, CET, & the Self-efficacy theory, the intervention will aim to enhance athletic performance using training sessions that work on arousal regulation.

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Description

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CET is a sub-theory of SDT. SDT by Ryan and Deci is a theory of motivation and psychological factors. It argues that three basic human needs determine an individual's intrinsic motivation: competence, autonomy, and relatedness. SDT focuses on intrinsic motivation, but it does not explain what causes intrinsic motivation. CET was developed to focus on how external factors (i.e., environment) influence intrinsic motivation. CET hypothesizes that any event that affects a person's competence or feelings of self-determination, will also affect their intrinsic motivation. These events have two functional components: a controlling aspect & an informational aspect.

Summary supported by Foundations of Sports & Exercise Psychology

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Psychological Needs

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Autonomy

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To have input in a decision or feel in control of it.

Relatedness

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To care for others and have them care for you.

Competence

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To feel confident & self-efficacious.

Main Idea

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Outside factors have an effect on and individual's internal motivation.

Main Idea

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An individual's belief that they can complete a task successfully.

Main Idea

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Everyone has their own mental/physical state in which they perform their best at.

Controlling Aspect

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Relates to an individual's locus of causality (what causes a person's behavior) in the situation.

Informational Aspect

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Affects intrinsic motivation by altering how competent someone feels.

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Main Findings/Summary

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Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET):

Research on CET has provided insights into how individuals perceive and interpret external events, influencing their motivation in sports.
CET has helped researchers understand the impact of feedback and rewards on motivation, challenging traditional views on how external factors affect intrinsic motivation.

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Self-Determination Theory (SDT):

Studies on SDT have shown that meeting basic psychological needs leads to positive outcomes in terms of motivation, performance, and development in sports.
SDT research has highlighted the importance of creating social contexts that support individuals' psychological needs to enhance motivation and overall well-being in athletic settings.

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Types of Motivation

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Intrinsic Motivation

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The drive to do something for an internal or personal reason/reward (i.e., fulfillment, satisfaction, accomplishment).

Extrinsic Motivation

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The drive to do something for an external reason/reward (i.e., money, to avoid punishment, win a trophy).

Synergies

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Each of these 3 theories can be used to work towards improving athletic performance through understanding psychological aspects associated with performance events. An individual's emotional state (arousal) is a common variable in these theories. Arousal levels alter a person's self-efficacy. The IZOF indicates that each person performs their best at their optimal arousal level. Although the CET is a little more complex, competence is one of the main principles of theory and is manipulated by arousal levels as well.

Conflicts

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Although these theories all work towards improving performance, they have their distinctions as well. While Self-Efficacy Theory is broadly applicable across various fields to enhance confidence and persistence, Cognitive Evaluation Theory is used to create environments that support intrinsic motivation, and the IZOF model is primarily applied in sports psychology to help athletes manage their emotions for optimal performance.

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Intervention Details

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At the beginning of the intervention, the athlete will complete an initial assessment to determine their self-efficacy levels, IZOF, and their sources of intrinsic motivation. Following this session, the athlete will be informed of what their scores/results mean and how these theories are connected to performance. Finally, an arousal regulation technique (breath control) will be introduced and taught to the athlete. This technique will be encouraged to be used before & during events to help athletes get to their IZOF.

CSAI-2

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Arousal Regulation Technique

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The athlete will be taken through an informational session about breath control and how it can help improve performance. Slow breathing down-regulates arousal & has been shown to decrease anxiety and calm people down. Fast breathing up-regulates arousal & has been shown to heighten focus and reaction time.
In this session, the athlete's resting respiratory rate will be taken (5min).
- A 30% increase or decrease in breathing rate shows physiological & psychological changes, that is what will be used (Balters et al., 2018; Paredes et al., 2018).
The athlete will then go through a couple of trials with the slow and fast breathing frequency to feel the differences from their resting rate. They will also try to reach their IZOF.
This arousal regulation technique is very practical to use in real-life settings as it is quick and easy.
The main purpose of this intervention is to introduce and familiarize the athlete with a resource to help them get to their IZOF quickly.

Initial Assessment

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The initial assessment is for both the athlete and the instructor. The information found in this session will reveal the athlete's self-efficacy scores, IZOF, and level of intrinsic motivation.

IZOF: We will find this by using the CSAI-2. The athlete will complete the questionnaire based off of their last 4 performances to the best of their ability. The instructor will find the IZOF by using M ± 1/2 SD. M is the mean of CSAI-2 subscales corresponding to the personal best performances, and SD is the standard deviation of CSAI-2 subscales. (Yao Z, Li Y., 2022).

Self-Efficacy: We will determine the athlete's self-efficacy with the GSE (Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. 1995).

CET: We will measure CET with the BPNSFS which measures autonomy, competence, and relatedness (BPNSFS; Chen, Vansteenkiste, et al., 2015).

GSE

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BPNSFS

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Next step

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The athlete will be debriefed on the results of their questionnaires and what they mean. From this point there are many directions a sports psychologist could go to improve self-efficacy & intrinsic motivation. But something that these 3 theories have in common is that they are influenced by the person's emotional state. This is why an arousal regulation technique will be taught to he athlete in hopes of improving performance based off of the theories previously discussed. Helping an athlete regulate their arousal level will help them be able to reach their IZOF, increase their self-efficacy, and maintain their intrinsic motivation by manipulating how they interpret their surroundings (CET).

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