·         Ebert formed a provisional government consisting of 3 SPD and 3 USPD members to take control until elections could be held, called Council of People’s Commissars.

·         The Ebert-Groener Pact- A deal made between Ebert and the right-wing army. General Groener agreed to supress lingering revolutionary activity in return for the promise that the government would maintain the authority of the army and its existing military officers.

·         Stinnes-Legien Agreement 15 November 1918

·         Ebert’s USPD disapproved of his actions and his cabinet broke up after an incident in December 1918.

·         Spartacist Rebellion 5^th Jan 1918, Left wing uprisings throughout 1919 and 1920, as well as in 1921 and 1923

·         There were 22 political assassinations by left-wing opposition and ten of the assassins were caught ad sentenced to death.  Whilst there were 354 right-wing political assassinations between 1919 and 1923. of the right-wing murders, 326 went unpunished, and only on was convicted and sentenced to severe punishment before 1923.

·         January 1920, the government started to reduce the size of the army and disbanded some of the Freikorps units in accordance with the demands of the Treaty of Versailles. 

·         February 1920, (the Kapp Putsch): the defence minister, Noske, ordered two Freikorps units, stationed 12 miles from Berlin and comprising of 12,000 men, to disband. General Walter von Luttwitz, the commanding general, refused and the government ordered his arrest.

·         The total amount of reparations payable by Germany was set by an Inter-Alliance Reparations Commission in April 1921 at £6.6 billion, with 66 annual instalments of £100 million. In 1923, the Inter-Alliance Commission declared that the Germans were in arrears with timber and coal payments. 

·         The French angered by the treaty of Rapallo and 11th January, French and Belgian troops advanced into the Ruhr to take coal, steel and manufactured goods from Germany as reparations.

·         Transferred power form the Lander to regional military commanders in September 1923 and appointed a new Reich Commissioner, displacing the democratically elected SPD Prime Minister in Saxony. 

·         November 1923 Nazi uprising – Last one against Weimar.

·         Swing away from moderate parties in 1920 election, who only took 44% of the vote, and towards the extreme left (the USPD took 17.9%) and the extreme right (the DNVP took 14.9%).

Summary: Germany struggles with rebellion after putsch after attempted coup for a decade while extreme left and right wing factions fight for dominance over disheartened and disillusioned populace.

November 1918 – Workers granted 8 hour days and trade unions were abolished.

1918 – Conditions were overall appalling 

           -  Ebert- Groener Pact

June 1919 – Restrictions on the military imposed by Treaty of Versailles are enforced.

1920 – 40% of National Welfare expenditure were used on war- related pensions.

              Women were given the right to vote (There were 111 women in the Reichstag)

1922 – The Youth Welfare Act (Promoted physical and social fitness)

1923- Political unrest and economic situation spiralled out of control.

         - Workers hit with the crisis of hyperinflation and the introduction of Social Insurance. 

            Ownership of radios, telephones and cars increased.

1924- A public assistance programme replaced older poor relief legislation and German                 people experienced greater domestic social stability  

1925 – Accident insurance is introduced and employed women rose to 36%

1926 – Abortion is legalised.

1927 – Act on labour exchanges and unemployed insurance protects almost 18 million workers

1928– Military budget had increased 75% since 1924

1929 – Income per head in farming communities was 44% below national average

·         Families suffered massively during the war- parents were absent and children were neglected as well as this education was severely interrupted. 40% of German children suffered with rickets.

·         Food supplies dwindled, electricity supplies were cut, public transport ceased to exist and businesses simply couldn’t function.

·         During the height of hyperinflation people like pensioners and those relying on savings etc suffered hugely and lost a lot. 

·         However, some groups did well during this period, for example those who had debts and loans to pay off.

·         Govt. of the Lander were also heavily involved in their own schemes for social improvement often using foreign loans. 

·         Hospitals, schools, roads and electrical supplies were improved, by 1926 there were 205,793 new homes 

·         Women were given formal equality by the Republic and many went on to higher education and white collar jobs.

·          Despite this they still faced political discrimination. The BDF and League of German Women’s Association were created due to this pressure.

·         Younger Germans often imitated American youth with the way they dressed and behaved, this worried the people of Germany.

·         Ethnic minorities such as the Roma, Sinti, Jews, Poles and the Danes were assimilated.

·         Status of aristocracy had changed; all titles and legal privileges were removed.

·         They were ‘so fiercely’ against modernisation, Americanisation and capitalism.

·         The 1920’s saw a ‘cultural explosion’

·         The removal of censorship allowed for a ‘flowering’ of cultural activity.

 Both leaders shared the same conservative views and although they were often at odds, they were incapable of doing anything without one another. The constitution relied on an able relationship between the two of them. 

·         1914, the German army had an army of million men…. 1895-1913, real wages increased by 25%.... 1905-1913, 200,000 trade union strikes per year…. 1907, Industrial Rhineland and Westphalia absorbed over a million Germans who saw opportunity in working there… By 1914, 15 million Germans was covered by sickness insurance, 28 million insured against accidents and 1 million received annual pensions

·         The Elites consisted of Junkers, military officers and large factory owners…. the lower middle class consisted of non-manual professions such as clerks.... the working class consisted of those in manual professions such as coal miners

·         The elites were at the social hierarchy and they were also actively involved in politics whether that was through their wealth or pressure groups

·         Some elites thrived off industrialisation and made their fortunes through large factories/businesses but these elites didn’t share the same social status as those with a titled family

·         The women in the higher ranks of society lived a leisurely life and those with sufficient income would take on charity work

·         By 1914, women were given new opportunities such as new office jobs and work in large factories rather than them doing the stereotypical jobs

·         Gender equality still didn’t exist but organisations such as The Bund Deutscher Frauenvereine was established to try and change that

·         The SPD appealed to everyone’s interests including women’s, the SPD tried to gain the female vote but it failed

·         All the elites shared a common interest which was to build up the new united Germany and extend their own wealth/power

·         The German troops took a personal oath of loyalty to the Kaiser rather than swearing loyalty to the state

·         By 1914, the army was the largest it’s ever been and this was due to the Kaiser’s ambitions of Weltpolitik and his passion for the military tradition

·         Industrialisation increased the working classes conditions due to the various insurances and pensions which was introduced

·         However, the middle and upper class benefited the most as homes for the working class was still cramped and there was the constant threat of unemployment

·         Even though many fled their rural homes to seek improvement in the cities, the rural economy flourished due to scientific improvements and better connection between the farmland and cities

·         The fatherland party had lots of support-had 1.2 million members by 1918, During the 1918 revolution 8 sailors were shot dead and Kiel (place) was held by 40,000 rebellious people (soldiers, sailors and workers), 

·         Theobald Von Bethmann-Hollweg – last chancellor of the Kaiser, Paul Von Hindenburg – became military leader, Erich Ludendorff – Hindenburg’s Quartermaster General (deputy), Matthias Erzberger – called for an end to the war, George Michaelis - replaced Bethmann-Hollweg and persuaded the Reichstag for more war credits, Wolfgang Kapp –  founded Fatherland party alongside Admiral Tirpitz, Count Von Hertling – 1917 replaced Michaelis and promised reform, Karl Liebknecht – co-founder of the Spartacist league, Hugo Preuss – Author of the draft version of the constitution.

·         In the first two years of war the chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg was left in minimal control; the chancellors became ignored and lost their influence.

·         The military stared to dictate the country with the Kaiser in 1916, this gave them more power.

·         When the war started in 1914 all previous political disputes were swept aside. This was known as the patriotic movement. All the parties joined together to support the war effort in the Reichstag.

·         There was a vote in the Reichstag to grant war credits. The Reichstag was adjourned until December 1914, when it reassembled to grant a second round of war credits.

·         The Kaiser appointed Hindenburg as the chief of staff and Ludendorff as his deputy. He made Hindenburg the leader of the army and handed him the control of the war. 

·         There were 5 main reasons for the collapse of the Kaiserreich: Popular disturbances - strikes, calls to reform the German constitution, split in the social democratic party, the 1917 Russian revolution, The Turnip war in 1916.

·         The 1919 Constitution was democratic but flawed and was a quick fix to the problems Germany faced politically.

·         From the midst of disaster in 1918 came the Weimar republic. They were to remove the Kaiser from power and create a more presidential Germany.

·         Elections took place in January 1919 for a national assembly whose task would be to establish a new constitution

·         In 1919, Germany became the most democratic nation in Europe as the military was in the hands of the government and Prussia and Bavaria lost its monarchies.

·         The Weimar Constitution had 5 separate parts: The President/ head of state, Chancellor, The Reichsrat, Individual Voters rights and the Reichstag. 

·         Germany remained a federal state with a central Reichstag government and separate state ‘Lander’ Governments.

·         1890- Wilhelm II takes power, 1891- declares he is in charge of the Reich,            

1890 – Chancellor Caprivi, 1894 – Chancellor Hohenlohe, 1900 – Chancellor Bulow,  1909 - Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg , 1908- Kaiser’s interview with British Daily Telegraph, 1913 – Kaiser declares support for excessive military action in Zabern Affair, 

1890 – General Federation of Trade Unions founded

 

·         Phillip zu Eulenberg – Anti-Catholic/Democratic, Anglophobe

·         Baron Von Holstein – Major role in foreign policy, as head of foreign office, failed to secure an alliance with Britain.

Both were favourite of Wilhelm, and held considerable influence in court.

·         Chancellors listed above

·         Various right-wing pressure groups, e.g. Pan-German league – Aimed to: unite Germans, acquire colonies and suppress socialism and democracy.

·         Wilhelm II was obsessed with Naval power, and to rival the Navy and Empire of Great Britain. Although he did not want war his commanders ignored him. When the Government initially asked him to abdicate he refused. Left Germany in exile to live in The Netherlands, as he was accused by some of starting and losing the war, eventually wanted throne back in the 1930’s but Hitler refused.

·         Chancellor Caprivi set about social reforms, and getting rid of anti-socialist laws. He changed military, reduced service and discussed budget every 2 years. Was eventually replaced by Kaiser for someone who would not oppose him.

·         Hohenlohe was appointed next because he posed no political threat, a “straw doll”. Tried to curb socialism with 1894 subversion bill and 1899 anti-union bill, but both were rejected by the Reichstag. Ignored by Chancellor who was more interested in foreign affairs and Weltpolitik. 

 

·         Wilhelm’s circle preserved the alliance of steel and rye, encouraged by right- wing pressure groups.

 

·         Bulow was groomed for office, and was the first chancellor the Kaiser really trusted, was less harsh on socialism, but still tried to win support by appealing to patriotism. 

 

·         Bulow introduced social reforms, with extended accident and health insurance. Was removed after accusations of homosexuality, and his failure to stop the spread of the Kaiser’s damaging newspaper interview.

 

·         Hollweg allowed the Kaiser to take control of military and foreign affairs. He himself could never get majorities on his policies and constantly had to lobby for support.

 

·         Hollweg faced pressure from the left who wanted a 3-stage voting system, and the right who demanded increases in military expenditure, with the Reichstag agreeing to a large increase in size in 1913.

 

·         The Kaiser’s actions at the peak of his personal rule, including dictating all diplomatic policy and controlling appointments causing tension in the Reichstag who could not exert much power due to their unwillingness to cooperate with each other, and could only compromise with the Kaisers ministers.

 

·         The Kaiser’s interview with British press angered the Reichstag, who demanded moderation of his future conduct, and his support of military action in Zabern affair caused an outcry from the people of Germany against militarism.

 

·         The period of Wilhelm II’s rule saw increase in political activism from unions and pressure groups, which contributed to the polarisation of German Politics. Wilhelm was concerned about the empire crumbling from within.

 

·         The Social democratic party grew exponentially, but their slogans made it hard for liberals to support them, and gave the right an excuse to attack them, as well at the government’s portrayal of them as the enemy.

 

·         The centre of German politics consisted of the Zentrum and liberals, who wanted to protect the church but differed in some policies. Liberal support came from wealthier middle classes and businesses.

 

·         1919 – currency fell by 20%, 1918 – 1919 – prices doubled, 1920 – prices 14x what they were in 1913, , 1920 – coalition dominated by the Zentrum, 1921– final reparation bill at 6.6 billion, 1921 – 1.8% unemployment compared to 17% in Britain, 1920 – 1922 vast economic growth, May 1921 – Germany paid first reparation installment £50 million, 1923 – Germany fall behind on payments, 1923 – currency worthless, 1923 – Stresemann becomes chancellor, November 1923 – Rentenmark introduced, 1924 – Rentenmark fully established at home and abroad, 1924 – Dawes plan, 1926 – Germany’s balance of trade moved into a deficit, 1929 – Young plan, 1924 – 1929 Weimar golden years.

 

·         Treaty of Versailles – land and colonies taken away, Saar mines given to France, Germany had to supply free coal to Belgium and France, 90% of Germany’s merchant fleet surrendered, reparation on £6.6 billion, accept responsibility for the war.

 

·         Ruhr occupation and passive resistance – 1921 Walter Rathenau became the Minister of Reconstruction and tried to co-operate with the allies to lower reparations, by 1923 Germany had fallen behind on reparations prompting the Ruhr invasion.  Chancellor Cuno stopped all reparation payments and encouraged passive resistance which worsened the economic situation.  

 

·         November 1923 currency became worthless, 300 paper mills and 2000 printers, workers had to be paid daily or twice daily. Currency was used as fast as possible before it devalued further. Goods were not easy to find and buy and there were also food shortages. 

 

·         1923 Schacht became Currency Commissioner in November 1923 he introduced the Rentenmark which is equal to one trillion old Marks. Schacht become leader of the Reichbank, aiming to reduce inflation and balancing expenditure. New taxes meant redistribution of wealth. 

 

·         Between 1924-25 the economy grew rapidly, the number of companies going bankrupt rose to 6000 in 1924, showing cheap credit was no longer viable. This resulted in a more efficient economy, by 1924 the Reichsmarks were cashed in. 

 

·         Dawes plan – 1924 Charles Dawes and Stresemann drew up the Dawes plan to help Germany with reparation payments: Reparations would remain the same but would be reappraised in 1929, Germany would pay £1000 million Marks immediately and £2500 million each year after, After that the sum would be based on industrial performance, Germany would receive 800 million Mark loan from the US, heavy investment in German infrastructure, sanctions of non-payments taken through consultation of all allies ( not just France). The Dawes plan was heavily opposed by the right wing DNVP and Nazis

 

·         Benefits of the Dawes plan: Acceptance by Allies that Germany couldn’t pay, improved infrastructure, improved relationship with France, financial confidence and optimism.

 

·         Young plan: 1929 reduced reparations bill reduced by 75%, extended period of payment by 59 years, ended allied supervision of German making. Heavily criticized y the right wing and caused Schacht to resign. 

 

·         Pre-war Germany relied on imports, war gave new importance to technicians and scientists who developed ersatz for self-sufficiency, this carried on into post-war Germany. Agriculture suffered from British blockade, industrial production 1/3 of what it had been in 1913. 

 

·         1920-22 = growth, 1923 = decline. 1927,28-19 = growth ‘Golden years’. 1913-29 = 4% economic growth – unemployment 3,000,000 by 1929. 

 

·         Heavy industry = some recovery, loss of resources was evident, major industry was at around 75% of what it was in 1913. 

 

·         Industrialists renationalized, chemical industry advances e.g large scale fertilizer production, electrical industry expanded under Siemens, shipping and cement expanded under Wiking Konzern, transport expanded, smaller industry suffered. 

 

·         Conscription meant women and the old worked the land, Turnip winter 1916-17 and poor harvest 1918-19 = food shortages and starvation. Agriculture faced challenges of cheap imports. 

 

·         1919 +20% of cultivated land belonged to less than 1% of landowners, Reich resettlement law 1919 aimed to redistribute land to smaller farmers – did not happen.  3% of small scale farmers benefitted.  

 

Summary: Between 1919-1929 the economy fluctuated between periods of growth and periods of hyperinflation – peaking in 1923 when money was not worth the paper it was printed on. Big businesses, aristocrats and industrialists benefitted the most in this period while small businesses and agriculture suffered. Compared to the pre-war years the economy was disastrous and was ripe for collapsing in 1929 after the Wall Street Crash due to relying on foreign loans and credit. 

 

The years between 1924-1929 are commonly referred to as the ‘Golden Years’ of Weimar Germany. The appointment as Stresseman as chancellor appeared to turn Germany’s fortunes around, with a new currency and US loans helping to produce an economic upturn. Despite the government changes, political stability appeared to be better.

·         General Wilhelm Groener was a professional soldier. He succeeded

·         Ludendorff in October 1918 and advised the Kaiser to abdicate. He made the

·         Ebert-Groener pact and he criticised the growing Nazi party. Resigned from

-In July 1922, the Reichstag passed a -year law, ‘For the Protection of the Republic’,