The vocational mindset continued through reports, stating that science and technology are the key to national strength.

Presidents such as Barack Obama reinforced it in speeches promoting STEM education and “21st-century skills.”

National Defense Education Act of 1958

 “Education became a matter of national defense,” a turning point that reframed schooling as training for technical advancement rather than civic participation.

A Nation at Risk (1983) and Rising Above the Gathering Storm (2007): Reinforced the notion that the purpose of education is to strengthen the U.S. economy and workforce.

The case argued that eighth-grade education was not enough for “capable citizenship”; a 12th-grade level is required for “meaningful civic participation.” - 2006 New York Court of Appeals case

Education must include critical thinking, argumentation, and social studies, not only math and science. By broadening political equality through participatory readiness, civic education enables policy reforms that reduce inequality

"Data from the Department of Education reveal that, among 2008 college graduates, 92.8 percent of humanities majors have voted at least once. Among STEM majors, that number is 83.5 percent." (Allen 2016)

Vocational education is necessary but incomplete. By centering education on civic participation, we build not just a stronger economy, but a stronger democracy. Neglecting civic education undermines equality, weakens democracy, and leaves policy decisions to the few rather than the many.

"Inequality, has been a choice"

(Stiglitz 2015)

"Institutions/politics determine how markets distribute gains."

(Acemoglu & Robinson 2012).