psychology review by

Chapter 1: What is Psychology?

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-the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

-science of psychology started in the late 1800's but the concept has been around a lot longer.

-

Wilhelm Wundt

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-father of psychology
- German philosopher-physician
-opened first psychology lab in Germany.
-focused on structuralism(identifying Structures of the mind)method of introspection (looking inside)

William James

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-functionalism(functions and purposes of the mind and behavior in the individual's with theenvironment

Darwin's natural selection

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- evolutionary process in which organisms that are best adapted to their environment will survive and produce offspring.

7 approaches

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- biological approach
- behavior approach :

- psychodynamic approach :

- humanistic approach:
- cognitive approach-
- evolutionary approach:
- sociocultural approach:

Chapter 2: Scientific Method

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Step 1- Observing some phenomenon
Step 2- Formulate hypothesis and predictions
Step 3- Testing through empirical research
Step 4- Drawing conclusions
Step 5- Evaluating theory

Descriptive Research

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-determines the basic dimensions of a phenomenon, defining what it is, how often it occurs, and so on.
- cannot prove what causes a phenomenon.
- observation, surveys and interviews, and and studies.

Correlational Research

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- examines the relationship she between variables, whose purpose is to examine whether and how two variables change together
- see how two things are related
- correlation does not equal causation
(At times some other variable that hasn't been measured account for relationship between two others = third variable problem)
- longitudinal design - obtaininging measures of variables in multiple waves overtime.

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Correlational coefficient- numerical value expressing the degree of relationship between two variables
- two variables-relationships' strength and direction
- between -1.00- +1.00
-the closer to +/- 1.00, the stronger the ralrionship
- (+ or - ) is the direction.
Postive= as one variable increases the other variable also increases
Negative= as one variable increase the other variable decreases.

Experimental Research

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- procedure in which the researcher manipulates one or more variables that are believed to influence some other variable.
- cause and effect
- random assignment- assign participants to groups by chance

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Independent
Dependent
Experimental group
Control group
_____________________
Validity
External
Internal
Experimenter bias
Participant bias
Placebo

Research Sampes and Settings

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Population - entire group
Sample- subset of population
Random sample- gives population a equal chance of being selected
____________________
Setting does not determine the type of research it is

Naturalistic observation-
viewing behavior in a real-world setting

Analyze & Interpreting Data

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Descriptive Statistics - mathematical procedures used to deceive and summarize sets of data in a meaningful way
-Measure of central tendency- single number that indicates the overall characteristics of a set of data (mean,median,mode)
-measures of dispersion- how much the scores in a sample differ from one another (range, standard deviation)
Inferential Statistics - mathematical methods that are used to indicate if results from d sample are likely to generalize to a population

ethics guidelines

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informed consent
confidentiality
debriefing
deception

Chapter 3: Biological foundations of Behavior

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Nervous system - body's electrochemical communication circuitry

characteristics:

complexity
intergration
adaptabiilty
electrochemical transmission

pathways in NS

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afferent nerves- sensory nerves, carry info to brain & spinal cord
efferent nerves- motor nerves, carry info out of brain & spinal cord
Primary divisions are:
central nervous system(CNS) - brain & spinal cord

peripheral nervous system(PNS)- network of nerves that connect brain & spinal cord to parts of body

Somatic NS- consists of sensory nerves and motor nerves( for skin and muscles)
Autonomic NS- takes messages to and from internal organs (breathing, heart rate, & digestion)
- Sympathetic NS- arouses the body
- Parasympathetic NS- calms the body

Neurons

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- one of two types of cells, handle the information- processing function
glial cells- glia,
_________________
cell structure
cell body
dendrite
axon
myelin sheath

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Ways to Study it
1. Accidents
  1. studying the effects
2. Lesions
  1. the removal or destruction of part of the brain
  2. studying the effects
3. Electroencephalogram (EEG)
  1. detects brain waves
  2. examines brain waves in different stages of consciousness, especially sleep
4. Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) Scan
  1. sophisticated x-ray
  2. shows brain structure
  3. uses x-ray cameras to get a 3-D picture
5. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
  1. shows brain structure
  2. uses magnetic fields to measure the density and location of brain material
  3. no radiation
  4. more detailed than a CAT scan
6. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan
  1. shows how much of a certain chemical parts of the brain are using
  2. measures which parts of the brain are most active during certain tasks
7. Functional MRI
  1. ties brain structure to brain activity during cognitive tasks
  2. combines elements of MRI and PET

chap3

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How a Neuron “Fires”

Resting State
1. Neuron has negative charge with positive ions surrounding the cell
Steps
1. Neuron is stimulated
  1. it releases neurotransmitters
2. Neurotransmitters bind to receptor sites on the dendrites of the receiving neuron
3. If the threshold is reached, the cell membrane of the receiving neuron becomes permeable
  1. positive ions rush in
  2. action potential
4. Axons release neurotransmitters to another neuron
All-or-None Principle
1. The neuron will fire completely or not at all

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Neuroanatomy

Neuroanatomy
1. The study of the parts and functions of nerves
2. Neurons
  1. individual nerve cells

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Parts of the Neuron
Dendrites

root like parts of the cell
stretch out from the cell body
grow to make synaptic connections with other neurons

Cell body (soma)

contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell necessary for its life

Axon

1.wire like structure ending in the terminal buttons
extend from the cell body

Myelin sheath

a fatty covering around the axon of some neurons that speeds neural impulses

Terminal buttons

end buttons, terminal branches of axon, synaptic knobs
branched end of the axon
contains neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters

chemicals contained in terminal buttons that enable neurons to communicate

Synapse

the space between the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neuron

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Neurotransmitters
1. Acetylcholine
  1. motor movement
  2. lack → Alzheimer’s
2. Dopamine
  1. motor movement and alertness
  2. lack → Parkinson’s disease
  3. too much → schizophrenia
3. Endorphins
  1. pain control
  2. involved in addiction
4. Serotonin
  1. mood control
  2. lack → clinical depression

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Hindbrain

medulla

controls blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing

2. pons

controls facial expressions
connects the hindbrain with the rest of the brain

3. cerebellum

“little brain”
coordinates muscle movement
on the bottom of the brain

Midbrain

reticular formation

controls general body arousal and the ability to focus our attention

Forebrain

thalamus

receives sensory signals coming up the spinal cord and sends them to other forebrain areas

2. hypothalamus

controls hunger sexual arousal, thirst, and the endocrine system

3. amygdala

vital for emotion

4. hippocampus

vital for memory and retaining new information

hemispheres and split brain

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Hemispheres
1. contralateral control
  1. left hemisphere- right half of body
  2. right hemisphere- left half
2. brain lateralization (hemispheric specialization)
  1. the specialization of function in each hemisphere
3. split brain patients
  1. the corpus collosum has been cut to treat severe epilepsy
  2. can’t orally report information presented to only the right hemisphere of the brain

endocrine system

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Endocrine System
1. Adrenal Glands
  1. Produce adrenaline → “fight or flight” prep
2. Ovaries and Testes
  1. Produce sex hormones
  2. May explain gender differences
3. Controlled by the hypothalamus

brain plasticity

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Parts of the brain can adapt to perform other functions
Because dendrites grow throughout our lives
Younger brains are more plastic

genetics

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Basic Genetic Concepts
1. Twins
  1. Identical (monozygotic) twins
    1. effective psychological environment
      1. physical similarity in twins causes them to be treated the same way
2. Chromosomal Abnormalities
  1. Turner’s Syndrome
    1. only single X chromosome
    2. causes shortness, webbed necks, and different sexual development
  2. Klinefelter’s Syndrome
    1. XXY chromosome pattern
    2. causes minimal sexual development and extreme introversion
  3. Down’s Syndrome
    1. extra chromosome on 21^st pair
    2. intellectual disability

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Chapter 4: Sensation and Perception

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Sensation
The process of receiving stimulus energies from the external environment and transforming those energies into neural energy.

Perception
The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information so that it has meaning.

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Gestalt Psychology
A school of thought interested in how people naturally organize their perceptions according to certain patterns.

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The Ear

Outer Ear
The outermost part of the ear, consisting of the pinna and the external auditory canal.

Middle Ear
The part of the ear that channels sound through the eardrum, hammer, anvil, and stirrup to the inner ear.

Inner Ear
The part of the ear that includes the oval window, cochlea, and basilar membrane and whose function is to convert sound waves into neural and send them to the brain.

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Place Theory
Theory on how the inner ear registers the frequency of sound, stating that each frequency produces vibrations at a particular spot on the basilar membrane.

Frequency Theory
Theory on how the inner ear registers the frequency of sound, stating that the perception of a sound's frequency depends on how often the auditory nerve fires.

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Signal Detection Theory
A theory perception that focuses on decision making about stimuli in the presence of uncertainty.

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Opponent-Process Theory
Theory stating that cells in the visual system respond to complementary pairs of red-green and blue-yellow; a given cell might get excited by red and inhabited by green, whereas another cell might be excited by yellow and get inhabited by blue.

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Trichromatic Theory
Proposed by Thomas Young, it is a theory stating that color perception is produced by three types of cone receptors in the retina that are particularly sensitive to different, but overlapping, ranges of wavelengths.

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Absolute Threshold
The minimum amount of stimulus energy a person can perceive.

Difference Threshold
The degree of difference that must exist between two stimuli before the difference is detected.

Subliminal Perception
The detection of information below the level of conscious awareness.

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Weber's Law
Discovered by E. H. Weber, it is the principle that two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount) to be perceived as different.

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Sensory Receptors
Specialized cells that detect stimulus information and transmit it to sensory (afferent) nerves and the brain.

Photo Reception
is the detection of light, Sight.

Mechano Reception
is the detection of pressure, vibration, and movement, perceived as touch, hearing, and equilibrium.

Chemo Reception
is the detection of chemical stimuli, perceived as smell and taste.

Chapter 5: States of Consciousness

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States of Consciousness are different states of an individual's awareness of external events and internal sensations under a condition of arousal, including awareness of the self and thoughts about one's experience.

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Sleep Stages: 1 to 4

Stage 1 of Sleep
is characterized by drowsy sleep. The individual may experience myoclonic jerks. The first stage of sleeping often involves the feelings of falling. EEGs of individuals in this stage are characterized by theta waves.

Stage 2 of Sleep
is when muscle activity decreases and the person is no longer conscious of their environment. Theta waves continue but are interspersed with sleep spindles. While experiencing sleep spindles, there is a noticeable increase in wave frequency. Both stage 1 and 2 are light sleeping stages, so when someone is awakened during these stages, they often don't remember being asleep at all.

Stages 3 and 4 of Sleep
are characterized by delta waves, the slowest and highest amplitude brain waves during sleep. Both stages are referred to delta sleep.
Stage 3 is characterized by delta waves occurring less than 50% of the time and stage 4 is characterized by delta waves occurring more than 50% of the time. This is the deepest sleep state, the time when our brain waves are least like are brain waves when we are awake. These stages are associated with memory and learning. These are also the stages associated with bed wetting in children.

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Drugs

Psychoactive Drugs
Drugs that act on the nervous system to alter consciousness, modify perception , and change mood.

Depressants
Psychoactive drugs that slow down mental and physical activity.

Barbiturates
Depressant drugs that decrease central nervous system activity.

Tranquilizers
Depressant drugs that reduce anxiety and induce relaxation>

Opiates
Narcotic drugs that depress activity in the central nervous system and eliminate pain.

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Activation-Synthesis Theory
Theory that dreaming occurs when the cerebral cortex synthesizes neural signals generated from activity in the lower part of the brain and that dreams result from the brain's attempts to find logic in random brain activity that occurs during sleep.

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Cognitive Theory of Dreaming
Theory proposing that we can understand dreaming by applying the same cognitive concepts we use in studying the waking mind: rests on the idea that dreams are essentially subconscious cognitive processing involving information and memory.

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REM Sleep
is what sleepers go through as they come closer to wakefulness. Known as Stage 5, REM (Rapid Eye Movement) is an active stage of sleep during which dreaming occurs. EEGs show fast waves of relaxed wakefulness during this stage and the sleeper's eyes will move around. REM sleep plays a role in memory and in creativity.

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Sleep Disorders

Insomnia
is a disorder causing the inability to sleep. With insomnia, the individual can experience trouble falling asleep, waking up during the night, or waking up too early. For short-term insomnia, physicians prescribe sleeping pills. Mild insomnia can be reduced by simply practicing good sleep habits. In more serious cases, researchers experiment with light therapy, melatonin supplements, and other ways to alter circadian cycles.

Sleep Walking and Sleep Talking
Somnambulism is the formal term for sleepwalking, which occurs during the deepest stages of sleep. Sleep walking occurs before dreaming starts. It is more common in individuals that are sleep deprived or have been drinking alcohol. Somniloquy is the formal term for sleep talking. Research has found such thing as sleep eating. People with these disorders are prescribed insomnia medication.

Nightmares and Night Terrors
A nightmare is a terrifying dream that wakes up the sleeper from REM sleep. Nightmares peak at the ages of 3 to 6. Nightmares have some relation to stress. Night Terrors are bad dreams that cause the sleeper to wake up in sudden arousal and in intense fear.

Narcolepsy
This disorder is the sudden, overpowering urge to sleep. It is such a strong urge that the person may fall asleep while standing or talking. Narcoleptics automatically enter REM sleep. Narcoleptics are usually tired during the day and their narcolepsy is triggered by excitement, surprise, etc. The disorder involves problems with the hypothalamus and amygdala. Although this disorder occurs in adulthood, signs of it are evident in childhood sometimes.

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Levels of Awareness

Higher-Level Consciousness
involves controlled processing, in which individuals actively focus their efforts on one goal. It is the most alert state of consciousness.

Lower-Level Consciousness
includes automatic processing that requires little attention, as well as daydreaming.

Altered States of Consciousness
can be produced by drugs, trauma, fatigue, possibly hypnosis, and sensory deprivation.

Subconscious Awareness
can occur when people are awake, as well as when they are sleeping and dreaming.

No Awareness
Freud's belief that some unconscious thoughts are too laden with anxiety and other negative emotions for consciousness to admit them.

Chapter 6: Learning

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Learning is a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience.

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Observational learning is learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates another's behavior. Observational learning is a common way that people learn in educational and other settings. Observational is different from associative learning described by behaviorism because it relies on mental processes: the learner has to pay attention, remember, and reproduce what the model did.

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Acquisition is the initial learning of the connection between the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus when these two stimuli are paired.
During acquisition, the CS is repeatedly presented followed by the UCS. Eventually, the CS will produce a response. Classical conditioning is a type of learning that occurs without awareness or effort, based on the presentation of two stimuli together.
Contiguity means that the CS and UCS are presented very close together in time.
Contingency means that the CS must not precede the UCS closely in time, it must also serve reliable indicator that the UCS is on its way.

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yennisel12 — 2017-04-04 21:22:16 UTC

Associative Learning is learning that occurs when we make a connection or an association between two events.Conditioning is the process of learning these associations. There are two types of conditioning; classical and operant.

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yennisel12 — 2017-04-04 21:22:59 UTC

Behaviorism is a theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors, discounting the importance of such mental activity as thinking, wishing, and hoping. Behavioral psychologists define learning as relatively stable, observable changes in behavior. The behavioral approach has emphasized general laws that guide behavior change and make sense of some of the puzzling aspects of human life.

chp6 thorndike and skinner

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Classical conditioning is a learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.
Pavlov's Studies
Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist that is known for his work with dogs. In his experiments he routinely placed meat powder in a dog's mouth causing the dog to salivate. The dog reacted to a number of stimulus that had to do with food.

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Extinction is the weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent.

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An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus that produces a response without prior learning; food was the UCS in Pavlov's experiments.
An unconditioned response (UCR) is an unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by the UCS. Unconditioned responses are involuntary; they happen in response to a stimulus without conscious effort. In Pavlov's experiment, salivating in response to food was the UCR.
A conditioned stimulus(CS) is a previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
The conditioned response(CR) is the learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after CS-UCS pairing.

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yennisel12 — 2017-04-04 21:25:58 UTC

Generalization is the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response. Generalization has value in preventing learning from being tied to specific stimuli.
Discrimination is the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others.

Chapter 7: Memory

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Chapter 8: Thinking, Intelligence, and Language

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Thinking involves manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions and reflecting in a critical or creative manner
Intelligence is an all-purpose ability to do well on cognitive task, to solve problems, and to learn from experience
Language is a form of communication- whether spoken, written, or signed- that is based on a system of symbols.

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yennisel12 — 2017-04-04 21:34:14 UTC

An obstacle to problem solving:becoming fixated fixation involves using prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a fresh new perspective. Functional fixedness occurs when individuals fail to solve a problem because they are fixated on a thing's usual functions

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Thinking critically and creatively
Critical thinking means thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating the evidence
Mindfulness means being alert and mentally present for ones everyday activities.
open-mindedness means being receptive to other ways of looking at things
Creativity is the ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and to devise unconventional solutions to problems.
Divergent thinking is thinking that produces many solutions to the same problem
convergent thinking is thinking that produces the single best solution to a problem.

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Concepts are mental categories that are used to group objects, events, and characteristics. Humans use this ability to help categorize similar things in our world, for example, we know that both apples and oranges and both fruits, even though they may differ in one way ir another we still recognize that they belong to mgether because we have a concept of what a fruit may be. Concepts are important because they allow us to generalize, associate experiences and objects, they aid our memory by making it more efficient so we dont have to reinvent the wheel every time we come across a piece of information , and it provides clues on how to react to a particular object or experience.
Prototype model emphasizes that when people evaluate wheter given an item reflects a certain concept, they compare the item with the most typical item(s) in that category and look for a "family resemblance" with that item's properties

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yennisel12 — 2017-04-04 21:36:11 UTC

Intelligence is an all purpose ability to do well on cognitive task, to solve problems, and to learn from experience. psychologist measure intelligence using test that produce a score known as the persons IQ or intelligence quotient. the criteria for a good iq test involve validity which is the extent to which a est measures what it us intended to measure, the reliability which is the extent to which a test yields a consistent reproducible measure of performance, and the standardization which involves the development of uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test, and the creation of norm for the test. Binet developed the concept of mental age, which i an individuals level of mental development relative to that of others. German psychologist William stern devised the term intelligence quotient IQ in 1912 which is an individuals mental age multiplied by 100.
normal distribution is a symmetrical, bellshaped curve, with a majority of the scores falling in the middle of the possible range and few scores appearing toward the extremes of the range. Most iq test tended to be culturally biased. favoring the more prominent culture. culture fair test are intelligence test that are intended to be culturally unbiased

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Reasoning and decision making
Reasoning is the mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions. Its involved in problem solving and decision making. Inductive reasoning involves reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations. Deductive reasoning is reasoning from a general case that we know to be true to a specific instance
Decision making involves evaluating alternates and choosing between them.
Biases and heuristics
Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for and use information that supports our ideas rather than refutes them.
Hindsight bias is our tendency ti report falsely after the fact, that we accurately predicted an outcome, it is sometimes referred to as the "I knew it all along effect"
Availability heuristic refers to a prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events.
Base rate fallacy is the tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information
Representatives heuristic is the tendency to make judgments about a group on physical appearances or the match between a person and ones stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information

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yennisel12 — 2017-04-04 21:38:10 UTC

Problem solving is the mental process of finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available.
1. Find and frame problems. Finding and framing problems involves asking questions in creative ways and "seeing" what others do not
2. Develop good problem-solving strategies.
Subgoals are intermediate goals or intermediate problems that put us in a better position for reaching the final goal or solution.
Algorithms are strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem. Algorithms come in different forms, such as formulas, instructions, and the testing if all possible solutions.
Heuristics are shortcuts strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to the problem but do not guarantee an answer.
3. Evaluate solutions
Testing out a solution that you believe to be correct to see if it actually works.
4. Rethink and Redefine problems and solutions overtime good problem solvers tend to strive for a more effective and efficient solution for the problem or question at hand

Chapter 9: Human Development

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Development refers to the pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout the course of life.

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Physical process involves changes in an individual's biological nature. Genes inherited from parents; the hormonal changes of puberty and menopause; and changes throughout life in the brain, height and weight, and motor skills - all of these reflect the developmental role of biological processes. Such biological growth processes are called maturation.

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Cognitive process involves changes in an individual's thought, intelligence, and language. Observing a colorful mobile as it swings above a crib, constructing a sentence about the future, imaging oneself as a movie star, memorizing a new telephone number - these activités reflect the role of cognitive processes in development.

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Socioemotional process involves changes in an individual's relationship with other people, in emotions, and in personality. An infant's smile in response the her mother's touch, a girl's development of assertiveness, an adolescent's joy at the senior prom, a young man's aggressiveness in sport, and an older couple's affection for each other all reflect the role of socioemotional processes.

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In cross-sectional studies, a number of people of different ages are assessed at one point in time, and differences are noted.

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Nature refers to a person's biological inheritance, especially his or hers genes; nurture refers to the individual's environmental and social experiences.

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Prenatal Development:
Germinal period - weeks 1 &2: The germinal period begins with conception. After 1 week and any cell divisions, the zygote is made up of 100 to 50 cells. By the end of 2 weeks, the mass of cells has attached to the uterine wall.

Embryonic period - weeks 3 through 8: The rate of cell differentiation intensifies, support systems for the cells develop, and the beginnings of organs appear. By the end of this period, the heart begins to beat, the arms and legs become more differentiated, the face starts to form, and the intestinal tract appears.

Fetal period - months 2 through 9: At 2 months, the fetus is the size of a kidney bean and has started to ove around. 4 moths, the fetus is 5 inches long and weighs about 5 pounds. The last 3 months of pregnancy is the time when organ functioning increases and the fetus puts on considerable weight and size, adding baby fat.

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Cognitive development refers to how thought, intelligence, and language processes change as people mature. Cognition refers to the way individuals think and also their cognitive skills and abilities.

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Erikson's 3 stages of socioemotional développement in adulthood are intimacy vs. isolation (early adulthood), generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood), and integrity vs. despair ( late adulthood). A special concern, beginning when individual's are in their 50s, is the challenge of understanding life's meaning.

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Psychologists have suggested that coping with life's difficulties is one way in which adults may develop. For adults, taking an active approach to developing oneself may be an important motivator in development.

Chapter 10: Motivation

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The Evolutionary Approach

In early psychology, the evolutionary theory was the primary approach towards the role of motivation and Ethology was also utilized to describe it.

An instinct is an unlearned biological pattern of behavior that is assumed universal. By a sign stimulus, an instinct is set in motion.

According to these psychologists, motivation for sex, aggression, achievement, and other behaviors are from that evolutionary history and similarities amongst humans are shared through these roots

Evolutionary approaches emphasizes the passing of genetics, which leads to these theories having to focus on the domains of life.

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The Biology of Hunger

The stomach tells the brain how full it is and the quantity of nutrients. The hormone cholecystokinin (CCK) helps start the digestion of food, travels through the bloodstream to the brain, and signals us to stop eating.

Three key chemical substances play into hunger, eating, and satiety: glucose, insulin, and leptin. Glucose is a huge factor because the brain depends on sugar for energy. One of the receptors, in the brain, triggers hunger. The receptors in the liver, stores excess sugar and releases in to blood. The hormone insulin which also plays a role into glucose level. The hormone leptin decreases food intake and increase energy expenditure or metabolism.

The lateral hypothalamus involves in stimulating eating and ventromedial hypothalamus is involved in reducing hunger and restricts eating.

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Drive Reduction Theory
Motivation could be constructed through drive and need. A drive is the arousal state when you have a physiological need. A need is the deprivation that causes the energy for the drive to eliminate or reduce the deprivation.

Drive do not always follow from needs, they could also come out of nowhere.

Drive reduction theory explains as a drive strengthens, we motivate ourselves to reduce it. The goal of drive reduction is homeostasis, the body’s tendency to maintain a steady state.

Majority of psychologists believe that this theory does not provide a framework for understanding motivation because most people often behave in ways that increase a drive.

Chapter 10: Theories of Motivation

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Motivation is what forces someone to behave, think, and feel the way they do. This is seen by psychologists to have various theories about why people are motivations.

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Obesity

Obesity is a genetic component. Another factor of weight is a set point, which is determined by the quantity of fat stored in the body.

Disordered Eating

Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder that involves the relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation. Characteristics of anorexia nervosa:

· Weight less than 85% of what is considered normal

· Intense fear of gaining weight

· Distorted body image

· Lack of menstruation

Bulimia nervosa is the eating disorder in which an individual consistently follows a binge-and-purge eating pattern. Because this occurs in a normal weight range, so it’s often difficult to detect. This can lead to complications like a chronic sore throat, kidney problems, dehydration, and gastrointestinal disorders. This begins in late adolescence or early adulthood.

Binge Eating Disorder (BED) is characterized by recurrent episodes of consuming large amounts of food during when the person feels lack of control over eating.

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Optimum Arousal Theory

The Yerkes-Dodson Law states that performance is best under moderate arousal rather than low or high. The relationship between arousal and performance is one reason why individuals in many professions are forced to overlearn procedures.

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs that must be satisfied in the following order: physiological needs, safety, love and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization. The strongest needs are at the base. This states that their need for food overrules their need for love. Self-actualization is known to be the most important of Maslow’s needs and motivation to develop one’s full potential as a human.

Self Determination Theory

Edward Deci and Richard Ryan state that their self-determination theory asserts that there are three basic organismic needs: competence, relatedness and autonomy.

Competence which is met when we feel that our desires are brought out. Which involves self-efficacy and mastery. Relatedness is the need to engage in relations with others. Autonomy is the sense that we are in control of our own life, being independent and self-reliant.

This theory maintains one of the most important aspects of healthy motivation is to freely do what we want to do.

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Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation is based on the internal factors such as organismic needs. Extrinsic motivation involves external incentives such as rewards and punishments.

Self-Regulation: The Successful Pursuit of Goals

Self-regulation is the process by which a person completely controls their behavior in order to pursue important objectives.

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Emotion

Motivation and emotion are closely linked. Emotion is feeling, or affect, that can involve physiological arousal, a conscious experience, and behavioral expression.

Biological Factors
ANS takes the message to and from the body’s internal organs, monitoring processes. The SNS is involved in the body’s arousal, causing a reaction to a stressor. This then causes an increase in those monitored processes.

Theories of Emotion
According to the James-Lange theory, emotion results from physiological states triggered by the environment. Each emotion has a distinct set of physiological changes, evidently shown in responses like heart rate, breathing, sweating, etc. This theory also proposes that after the initial perception, the emotion experience results from the perception of one’s physiological needs.

According to the Cannon-Bard theory, it proposes that emotion and physiological reactions occur at the same time. In this theory, the body is less involved compared to the other theory.

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Cognitive Factors of Emotion

The two-factor theory of emotion states that emotion is determined by two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive labeling. Those who developed this theory states that we look to the external world for an explanation towards our arousal. We interpret external signs and label according to an emotion.

Our appraisals guide our emotions, although both thinking and feeling could come first when faced with the question “Which comes first, thinking or feeling?”

Behavioral Factors
The most interest in behavioral perspective of emotion is that it has been focus on a nonverbal behavior of facial expressions.

According to the facial feedback hypothesis, facial expressions can influence emotions alongside reflect them as well. Facial muscles send signals to the brain to recognize the emotion we are feeling.

Sociocultural Factors
Display rules are the sociocultural standard that could help determine when, where, and why emotions should be expressed.

Chapter 12: Personality

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Personality is a pattern of enduring, distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize the way an individual adapts to the world.

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Humanistic perspectives stress a person's capacity for personal growth ad positive human qualities. Maslow developed the concept of a hierarchy of needs, with self-actualization being the highest human need. In Roger's approach, each of us is born with a tendency toward growth, a sense of what is good and bad for us, and a need for unconditional positive regard. The humanistic perspectives promote the positive capacities of human beings, The weakness of the approach are a tendency to be too optimistic and an inclination to downplay personal responsibility.

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Freud developed psychoanalysis through his work with patients suffering from hysterical symptoms (physical symptoms with no physical cause). Freud viewed these symptoms as representing conflicts between sexual drive and duty.

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Trait theories emphasize that personality consists of traits - broad, enduring dispositions that lead to characteristic responses. Allport stated that traits should produce consistent behavior in different situations, and he used the lexical approach to personality traits, which involves using all the words in the natural language that could describe a person as a basis for understanding the traits of personality.

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The current dominant perspective in personality psychology is the five-factor model. The big five traits include openness to experience, conscientisations, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Extraversion is related to enhanced well-being, and neuroticism is linked to lowered well-being.

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Murray described personology as the study of the whole person. Contemporary followers of Murray study personality through narrative accounts and interviews. McAdams introduced the life story approach to identity, which views identity as a constantly changing story with a beginning, middle, and an end. Psychobiography is a form of personological investigation that applies personality theory to one person's life.

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Mischel's controversial book Personality and Assessment stressed that people do not behave consistently across different situations but rather tailor their behavior to suit particular situations. Personality psychologists countered that personality does predict behavior for some people some of the time. Mischel developed a revised approach to personality characteristics are more likely to predict behavior in weak vs. strong situations.

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Social cognitive theory states that behavior, environment, and person/cognitive factors are important in understanding personality. Two important concepts in social cognitive theory are self-efficacy and personal control. Self-efficacy is the belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes. Personal control refers to individuals' beliefs about whether the outcomes of their actions depend on their own acts (internal) or on events outside of their control (external).

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A particular strength of social cognitive theory is its focus on cognitive processes. However, social cognitive approaches have not given adequate attention to enduring individual differences, to biological facts, and to a personality as a whole/

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Eysenck suggest that the brain's reticular activation system (RAS) plays a role in introversion/extraversion. He thought of these traits as the outward manifestations of arousal regulation. Gray developed a reward sensitivity theory of personality, suggesting that extraversion and neuroticism can e understood as two neurological systems that respond to rewards (the behavioral approach system, or BAS) and punishments (the behavioral inhibition system, or BIS) in the environment.

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Research has found the dopamine is associated with behavioral approach extraversion) and serotonin with behavioral avoidance (neuroticism). Behavioral genetic studies have shown that the heritability of personality traits is approximately 50%. Studies of biological processes in personality are valuable but can overestimate the causal role of biological factors.

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The most popular test for assessing the big five traits is the NEO-PI-R, which uses self-report items to measure each of the traits. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is the most widely used empirically keyed personality test. Projective tests, designed to assess unconscious aspects of personality, present individuals with an ambiguous stimulus, such as an inkblot or a picture, and ask them to tell a story about it. Projective tests are based on the assumption that individuals will project their personalities onto these stimuli. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a projective test that has been used in personality research. Other assessment methods include behavioral observation, reports from peers, and psychophysiological and neuropsychological measure.

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Self-report tests assess personality by asking participants about their preferences and behaviors. One problem in self-report research is the tendency for individuals to respond in socially desirable ways. Empirically keyed tests avoid social desirability problems by using items that distinguish between groups even if we do not know why the items do so.

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Conscientiousness and personal control relate to health and longevity through their association with healthy lifestyle choices. Self-efficacy is also related to the ability to make positive changes in lifestyle. Optimism is another personality characteristic that is related to better health. The Type A behavior pattern is a set of characteristics that may put an individual at risk for the development of heart disease. Type A behavior includes hostility, time urgency, and competitiveness. Type B behavior, in contrast, refers to a more easygoing style. The crucial aspect of Type A appears to be hostility. Personality traits that are related to health and wellness can also be thought of as states. Thus, even if you are low on these wellness traits, you can still benefit by seeking out states that foster positive attributes.

Chapter 13: Social Psychology

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Chapter 15: Psychological Disorders

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Chapter 16: Therapies

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Biological approaches to therapy include drugs, electroconvulsive therapy (ETC), and psychosurgery. Psychotherapeutic drugs that tret psychological disorders fall into three main categories: antianxiety drugs, antidepressant drugs, and antipsychotic drugs.
Benzodiazepines are the most commonly used antianxiety drugs. Antidepressant drugs regulate mood; the three main classes are tricyclics, MAO inhibitors, and SSRI drugs. Lithium is used to treat bipolar disorder. Antipsychotic drugs are administered to treat severe psychological disorders, especially schizophrenia.

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Psychotherapy is the process that mental health professionals use to help individuals recognize, define, and overcome their disorders and improve their adjustment. In Freudian psychoanalysis, psychological disorders stem from unresolved unconscious conflicts, believed to originate in early family experiences. A therapist's interpretation of free association, dreams, transference, and resistance provides paths for understanding the client's unconscious conflicts. In humanistic therapies, the analyst encourages clients to understand themselves and to grow personally. Client-centered therapy, developed by Rogers, is a type of humanistic therapy that includes active listening, reflective speech, unconditional positive regard, empathy, and genuineness.

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Behavior therapies use principles of learning to reduce or eliminate maladaptive behavior. They are based on the behavioral and social cognitive theories of personality. Behavior therapies seek to eliminate these symptoms or behaviors rather than to help individuals to gain insight into their problems. Two main behavior therapy techniques based on classical conditioning are systematic desensitization and aversive conditoning. In systematic desensitization, anxiety is treated by getting the individual to associate deep relaxation with increasingly intense anxiety-producing situation. In aversive conditioning, pairing of the undesirable behavior with aversive stimuli are repeated to decrease the behavior's pleasant associations.

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In operant conditioning approaches to behavior therapy, a careful analysis of the person's environment is conducted to determine which factors need modification. Applied behavior analysis is the application of operant conditioning to change human behavior. Its main goal is to replace maladaptive behaviors with adaptive ones.

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Cognitive therapies emphasize that the individual's cognitions (thoughts) are the main source of abnormal behavior. Cognitive therapies attempt to change the person's feelings and behaviors by changing cognitions. Three main forms of cognitive therapy are Ellis's rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT), Beck's cognitive therapy, and cognitive-behavior therapy. Ellis's approach is based on the idea that individuals develop psychological disorders because of their beliefs, especially irrational beliefs. In Beck's cognitive therapy, which has been especially effective in treating depression, the therapist assists the lient in learning about logical errors in thinking and then guides the client in challenging these thinking errors. Cognitive-behavior therapy combines cognitive therapies and behavior therapy techniques. Self-efficacy and self-instructional methods are used in this approach.

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As many as 50% of practicing therapists refer to themselves as "integrative" or "eclectic." Integrative therapy uses a combination of techniques from different therapies based on the therapist's judgement of which particular techniques will provide the greatest benefit for the client.

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Group therapies emphasize that relationships can hold the key to successful therapy. Family therapy is group therapy with family members. Four widely used family therapy techniques are validation, reframing, structural change, and detriangulation. Couples therapy is group therapy with married or unmarried couples whose major problem is within their relationship.

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Self-help support groups are voluntary organizations of individuals who get together on a regular basis to discuss to[pics of common interest. They are conducted without a professional therapist. The community mental health mouvement was born out of the belief that individuals suffering from psychological disorders should not be locked away from their families and communities. The deinstitutionalization that resulted from the movement caused the homeless population to rie, however. Empowerment is often a goal of community mental health.

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Psychotherapies' traditional focus on the individual may be successful in individualistic Western cultures. However, individualcentered psychotherapies may not work as well in collectivistic cultures. Therapy is often more effective when there is an ethnic match between the therapist and the client, although culturally sensitive therapy can be provided by a therapist with different background than the client's. Psychotherapies emphasize on independence and self-reliance may be problematic for the many women who place a strong emphasis on connectedness n relationships To address that problem, feminist therapies ave emerged.

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Using meta-analysis, researchers have found that psychtherapies are successful in treating psychological disorders The Dodo bird hypothesis states that therapy works but that no therapy is conclusively more effective than any other. People considering psychotherapy should find out all they can about the various types of treatments and think about which might best suit their personality and problem. The therapeutic alliance and client factors are tow important variables that influence therapeutic success. The key to successful therapy may lie not in a particular therapist or technique but in the client. Although a individual may be in distress when beginning treatment, his or her internal resources and strengths are brought forth by therapy, as a result of which the individual might expect a healthier, more satisfying life.

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Psychotherapy has been shown to help individuals cope with serious physical diseases. Psychotherapy can also aid individuals by alleviating physical symptoms directly or by reducing psychological problems, such as depressions, that are related to physical illness. Research has sown moreover that brief psychotherapy may be a cost-effective way to prevent serious psychological disorders. Psychotherapy aims not only at reducing the presence of psychological illness but also at enhancing psychological wellness and personal growth. Individuals who gain in the wellness are less likely to fall prey to recurrent psychological distress. Interventions such as well-being therapy have been designed to promote wellness itself.