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1. Temperature

• Higher temperatures significantly accelerate the Maillard reaction. It typically starts around 140–165°C (285–330°F).

• Cooking methods like roasting, grilling, or frying promote this reaction more than boiling or steaming.

2. pH Level

• A slightly alkaline environment (pH > 7) speeds up the reaction.

• Adding a small amount of baking soda can raise the pH and encourage browning.

3. Low Moisture

• The reaction happens faster in dry conditions.

• Moisture inhibits browning because water keeps the temperature below boiling point (100°C) until it evaporates.

4. Type of Sugar

• Reducing sugars like glucose, fructose, and lactose react more readily be broken down than sucrose

• Fructose is more reactive than glucose.

5. Type of Amino Acids or Proteins

• Some amino acids are more reactive and enhance flavor and color formation.

6. Time

• The longer the food is exposed to Maillard reaction-friendly conditions, the more pronounced the effect

7. Surface Area

• Greater surface area (Example :thin slice of meat )increases exposure to heat and air, boosting the reaction.

🥖 Baking Industry

• Amylases break down starches into simple sugars, feeding yeast and improving dough rise and texture.

• Proteases break down gluten to make dough more extensible, helping in products like cookies or crackers.

• Lipases acts by hydrolysing fat which can enhance the flavor and shelf life of baked goods.

  
  

🧀 Dairy Industry

• Rennet (chymosin) is used to coagulate milk into cheese.

• Lactase breaks down lactose in milk, useful for lactose-free products.

  
  

🍺 Beverage Industry

• Amylases and glucanases break down starches in brewing, improving yield and clarity in beer production.

• Pectinases are used in fruit juice production to clarify juices and increase juice yield.

  
  

🥩 Meat Industry

• Proteases (like papain from papaya or bromelain from pineapple) tenderize meat by breaking down protein fibers.

  
  

🍬 Confectionery

• Invertase converts sucrose into glucose and fructose, preventing crystallization and keeping candies like fondant smooth.

• Glucose isomerase is used to convert glucose into fructose for making high-fructose corn syrup.

  
  

🍞 Processed Foods

• Enzymes help:

  • Extend shelf life

  • Enhance color and texture

  • Improve digestibility

  • Reduce allergens (e.g., in gluten-free products)

✅ Why It Matters:

The P/S ratio is used to assess the quality of dietary fat and its impact on health, especially cardiovascular health.

• Polyunsaturated fats (like omega-3 and omega-6) are considered heart-healthy.

• Saturated fats, in excess, are associated with higher LDL cholesterol and increased risk of heart disease.

📈 What a Higher P/S Ratio Indicates:

• A greater proportion of healthy fats (PUFAs) compared to unhealthy ones (SFAs).

• Typically considered better for heart health.

• Found in diets rich in fish, nuts, seeds, and plant oils (like sunflower or flaxseed oil).

📉 What a Low P/S Ratio Suggests:

• High intake of saturated fats (e.g., butter, lard, fatty meats).

• Potential risk factor for atherosclerosis and heart disease.

1. Dietary Fiber

• Includes all plant-based carbohydrates that can't be digested by human enzymes (cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins, mucilage, and resistant starch).

• Promotes digestive health, helps regulate blood sugar, lowers cholesterol, and aids in satiety.

• More accurate and nutritionally relevant.

2. Crude Fiber

• An older, more limited measure of fiber that includes mainly cellulose and lignin.

• Gives a rough idea of indigestible plant material but misses many important fiber types.

• Underestimates total fiber content—often 40–60% less than actual dietary fiber.

Soluble fiber vs Insoluble fiber

1. Soluble fiber

• Dissolved in water and forms a gel-like substance

• found in oats, apples, citrus fruits, barley, legumes

• It slows digestion, helps control blood sugar, and lowers LDL cholesterol

  
  

  2. Insoluble fiber

• does not dissolve in water

• found in whole grains, nuts, seeds, vegetables (e.g. celery, carrots)

• Helps to add bulk to stool and promotes regular bowel movements

  
  

When sugars or salts are dissolved in water, the boiling point of the solution increases due to a phenomenon called boiling point elevation, which is a colligative property. Colligative properties depend on the number of dissolved solute particles, not their specific chemical identity.

Why Does This Happen?

1. Boiling Requires Vapor Pressure to Match Atmospheric Pressure

• Pure water boils when its vapor pressure (the pressure of water molecules escaping into the gas phase) equals the surrounding atmospheric pressure.

• When a solute like sugar or salt is added, the solute particles take up space at the surface, reducing the number of water molecules that can escape into the air.

• This lowers the vapor pressure of the solution compared to pure water.

2. More Heat Is Needed to Reach Boiling

• Because the vapor pressure is now lower, the solution must be heated to a higher temperature for its vapor pressure to match the atmospheric pressure.

• As a result, the boiling point increases.

3. The Effect Is Stronger for Salts Than Sugars

• Salts (e.g., NaCl) dissociate into ions (Na⁺ and Cl⁻), increasing the number of solute particles in solution. More particles mean a greater effect on boiling point.

• Sugars (e.g., sucrose) dissolve as whole molecules and do not dissociate, so they produce fewer particles and have a smaller effect at the same concentration.

Conclusion

The boiling point of water increases when solutes are added because dissolved particles lower the vapor pressure, requiring more energy (heat) for boiling to occur. Ionic compounds like salts cause a greater increase than molecular compounds like sugars due to their dissociation into multiple particles.

1. Dry Heat in a Microwave

• Microwaves use electromagnetic waves to excite water molecules and other polar molecules within food, generating heat internally.

• This results in rapid heating, similar to dry cooking methods like baking or roasting.

• Foods with low moisture content, like bread, can become dry and tough due to water evaporation.

  
  

2. Moist Heat in a Microwave

• When cooking foods with high water content (e.g., vegetables, rice, or stews), the microwaves generate steam within the food.

• Covering food with a lid or plastic wrap traps moisture, creating a steaming effect.

• This method helps retain food moisture, making it similar to steaming or boiling.

  
  

Combination of Both Methods

• Some foods experience both dry and moist heat at different stages. For example:

  • Baking Potatoes: The inside cooks with moist heat (steam from the potato’s water content), while the outside dries out.

  • Reheating Leftovers: Adding a cup of water or covering the dish prevents drying by introducing steam.

  • Microwave Crisper Trays: These absorb microwave energy and create a dry, crispy exterior while the inside stays moist.

    
    

Thus, while a microwave mainly functions as a dry-heat appliance, it can mimic moist-heat cooking depending on how food is prepared and covered.

-> The more mineral, the harder the water.

• Soft water: water with low Mg2+, Ca2+ concentration (less contact with limestone/mineral-rich rocks)

• Advantages of hard water: no harm to our health and can be beneficial (mineral content)

• Disadvantages of hard water: tough to rub off soap residue on dishes/glass, shorten the lifespan of plumbing (deposition on pipe)

• Conversion of hard water to soft water: ion exchange method (replace Mg2+ & Ca2+ with Na2+/K+)

• Taste: hard water tends to have a slightly off taste

To determine whether water is hard or soft based on chemical reactions, you can perform tests that reveal the presence of calcium (Ca²⁺) and magnesium (Mg²⁺) ions, which are characteristic of hard water. Two common methods involve observing reactions with soap and with sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃).

A)    Soap Test: Formation of Insoluble Precipitate

Materials:

Clean transparent bottle, tap water, pure liquid soap (not detergent)

Steps:

1.     Fill the bottle ⅓ full with tap water.

2.     Add a few drops of pure liquid soap.

3.     Shake vigorously.

Results:

Soft water: Lots of suds/lather, water below stays mostly clear.

Hard water: Few suds, water appears cloudy or filmy.

When soap is added to hard water, it reacts with calcium and magnesium ions to form an insoluble precipitate known as soap scum. This reaction reduces the soap’s ability to lather.

In contrast, soft water lacks these ions, allowing soap to lather more freely without forming scum.

B)     Sodium Carbonate Test: Precipitation of Carbonates

Adding sodium carbonate to a water sample can also indicate hardness. In hard water, sodium carbonate reacts with calcium and magnesium ions to form insoluble calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) and magnesium carbonate (MgCO₃).  The formation of white precipitate suggests the presence of hardness ions. In soft water, this reaction does not occur, and no precipitate forms.

These chemical tests provide a practical means to assess water hardness by detecting the specific reactions of calcium and magnesium ions present in the water.

References:

https://youtu.be/2ZHgfSc1lMo

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_%28Inorganic_Chemistry%29/Descriptive_Chemistry/Main_Group_Reactions/Hard_Water

https://www.preclaboratories.com/hard-water-soap-test/

the importance of protein complementation to obtain a complete amino acid profile especially for people who practice vegan diets or those who limit their animal product consumption.

-Honey

2 . Fructose

-Fruits

3 . Galactose

-Milk

• Insomnia (difficulty sleeping)

• Increased heart rate (tachycardia)

• Nervousness and anxiety

• Digestive issues such as stomach upset

• Headaches

• Dependence or addiction

• Restlessness and shakiness

• High blood pressure

2) How is excessive caffeine intake defined ?

Excessive caffeine intake is typically defined as consuming more than 400 mg of caffeine per day for healthy adults. This is roughly equivalent to:

• 4–5 cups of brewed coffee

• 10 cans of cola

• 2 “energy shot” drinks

However, sensitivity to caffeine varies from person to person. Pregnant individuals, children, and people with certain health conditions may need to limit their caffeine intake even further.

Group 21 :

Irdina Maisarah Binti Kamarul

Anisah Sofiah Binti Mohd Nazri

Qualifications for Health Claims About Plant Sterols (FDA):

1. Plant Sterol Content

The food must contain at least 0.65 grams (650 mg) of plant sterol esters or 0.4 grams (400 mg) of free (non-esterified) plant sterols per serving.

2. Consumption Level for Health Effect

To achieve the claimed health benefit, consumers must consume a total of 1.3 grams (1,300 mg) of plant sterol esters or 0.8 grams (800 mg) of free plant sterols per day, typically through two servings.

3. Nutritional Profile of the Food

The food must:

- Be low in saturated fat, low in cholesterol, and

- Contain no more than 13 grams of total fat per serving and per 50 grams of food, unless the fat comes from certain nutrient-rich sources (e.g., nuts or vegetable oils).

4. Use of the Claim Must Follow FDA-Approved Wording

The wording of the claim must be consistent with FDA regulations and may look like:

“Foods containing at least 0.65 gram per serving of plant sterol esters, eaten twice a day with meals for a daily total intake of at least 1.3 grams, as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease.”

Based on RNI 2017, WHO (2012) recommends less than 2 grams of sodium per day (equivalent to 5 grams of salt) for adults to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. The RNI Malaysia also shows adaptation towards IOM (2006) guidelines for sodium, with 1500 mg/day as the standard AI for most groups, which is aligned with international health guidelines but still under the 2g upper limit suggested by WHO. Additionally, for children, the sodium intake should be adjusted downward based on energy requirements and age.

Is there a difference in sodium concentration between rock salt and sea salt?

Rock salt contain approximately 16,600 mmol/kg of sodium, while sea salt has slightly less sodium, around 16,100 mmol/kg, due to moisture and trace mineral content.

NURAIN INSYIRAH BINTI ISNIN (A212327)

NUR DIYANA BINTI SADRI (A210667)

1. Food Preservation:

Pickling:

Similar to salting, pickling utilizes a high salt concentration in a vinegar solution, which draws water out of the food and inhibits microbial growth, preserving the food.

Cured Meats:

Osmosis is used to draw water out of meat during curing, reducing water activity and preventing microbial growth, while also allowing flavors to penetrate the meat.

2. Food Processing and Dehydration:

Fruit and Vegetable Juice Concentration:

Osmosis, particularly forward osmosis (FO), can be used to concentrate fruit and vegetable juices, preserving their natural flavors and nutrients.

Concentrating Cold Brew Coffee:

Forward osmosis can be used to concentrate cold brew coffee, minimizing heat exposure and preserving the coffee's flavor.

Osmotic pressure

1. Food Preservation:

Salt and Sugar Preservation:

(Pickles and Jams) High concentrations of salt (brine) or sugar create a hypertonic environment, drawing water out of microbial cells and inhibiting their growth and reproduction, thus preserving food.

Osmotic Dehydration:

(Fruits and Vegetables) Soaking fruits and vegetables in a hypertonic solution (sugar or salt) before drying or freezing reduces water content, minimizing cell damage during freezing and extending shelf life.

Concentration of Juices: Osmotic pressure can be used to concentrate fruit and vegetable juices by drawing water out of the solution.

-They are found in many fruits and vegetables, including garlic, onions, bananas, and chicory root.

-They are also produced commercially and added to foods and supplements as a prebiotic.

How Fructo-oligosaccharides support gut health:

-Prebiotic Action: Fructo-oligosaccharides act as a food source for beneficial gut bacteria, promoting their growth and activity.

-Beneficial Bacteria: Fructo-oligosaccharides are particularly effective in promoting the growth of Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli, which are known for their positive effects on gut health.

-Enhanced Immunity: A healthy gut microbiome, fostered by prebiotics like Fructo-oligosaccharides, can contribute to a stronger immune system.

• carotenoids

• flavenoids

• polyphenols

• isothiocyanates

  
  

2) Benefits of phytochemicals

• Strengthening the immune system

• Reducing inflammation

• Preventing DNA damage and helping DNA repair

• Slowing cancer cell growth

• Regulating hormones

• Preventing damaged cells from reproducing

group 20:

• nur kamaliah jasmine

• nur liana putri

Application: Producing corn syrup, glucose syrup, and maltodextrins.

2. Protein Hydrolysis

Application: Making protein hydrolysates used in baby formulas, sports drinks, and medical nutrition.

3. Lactose Hydrolysis

Application: Producing lactose-free milk and dairy products.

4. Fat Hydrolysis (Lipolysis)

Application: Flavor development in cheese and fermented meats.

5. Sucrose Hydrolysis (Inversion)

Application: Making invert sugar syrup used in candies, soft drinks, and baked goods.

1. Breakfast cereals enriched with folic acid

2. Yogurt enriched with probiotics

3. Fruit juice enriched with calcium

Food fortification

1. Cooking oil fortified with vitamin A

2. Bread fortified with calcium

3. Infant formula fortified with Iron

• Phenolics are defined by the presence of one or more aromatic rings bearing a hydroxyl group

1. Lignans:

• Flavor:

- Lignans have a mild flavor, but they can contribute subtle earthy or nutty notes to foods. They are present in seeds, particularly flaxseeds, and in some grains and vegetables. Lignans are less prominent in flavor compared to tannins, but they add complexity to the taste profile of certain foods.

• Color:

- Lignans themselves don’t significantly impact the color of foods, but they can be part of a larger matrix of plant compounds that influence the overall color of plant-based foods.

• Aroma:

- Lignans are not typically strong contributors to the aroma of foods. However, they are present in foods like sesame seeds and flaxseeds, which contribute to mild nutty or grainy aromas.

• Food example: Flaxseeds, sesame seeds, and whole grains are common sources of lignans.

2. Polyphenols [Flavonoids (5classes)- Flavones & Flavonols, Flavanones, Isoflavones, Pro-anthocyanidins and Anthocyanidins]

• Flavor:

- Contribute to the bitter, astringent, or tart taste in foods. For example, catechins in green tea and chocolate add a bitter flavor.

- They also contribute to the complexity and refreshing quality of beverages like tea and wine.

• Color:

- Polyphenols, especially anthocyanins are crucial for color in fruits and vegetables. They provide the red, purple, and blue hues found in fruits like grapes, berries, and eggplants.

- In some cases, like in tea and coffee, polyphenols can contribute to a brown color, especially after oxidation.

• Aroma:

— Polyphenols contribute to the aromatic profile of foods by interacting with other volatile compounds. In wine, polyphenols interact with volatile compounds to enhance berry, floral, herbal, or spicy scents.

— Flavones, flavanones and isoflavones can contribute to fruity, spicy, or herbal aromas in foods like tea, wine, and fruits.

— Flavanones, found primarily in citrus fruits, contribute to the fresh, citrusy aroma of fruits like oranges and grapes.

— Pro-anthocyanidins play a role in the woody, earthy, or spicy aromas of red wine, chocolate, and certain fruits, adding to the depth of aroma.

3. Tannins:

• Flavor:

- Tannins are well-known for their astringency or bitterness which creates a dry, puckering sensation in the mouth. They are found in high concentrations in tea, red wine, coffee and some fruits like pomegranates.

• Color:

- Tannins do not directly affect color, but they interact with other pigments (like anthocyanins) to influence the color stability of foods like wine and fruit juices. In wine, for example, tannins help preserve the deep red color over time.

- Tannins can also influence the color of fruits during oxidation, creating brownish hues when exposed to air such as in apples.

• Aroma:

- Tannins contribute to the aromatic complexity of certain foods and drinks. In red wine and tea, tannins interact with volatile compounds to produce an earthy, woody, or even smoky aroma. Tannins are responsible for the drying sensation that some people associate with the aroma of certain aged wines or teas.

Summary:

- Lignans: Subtle nutty or earthy flavor, minimal impact on color and aroma.

- Polyphenols: Contribute bitterness, astringency, vibrant colors (especially anthocyanins), and complex aromas in foods like fruits, tea, coffee, and wine.

- Tannins: Strong astringent and bitter taste, can affect color stability (e.g., in wine), and contribute to the earthy, woody aroma in wine and tea.

How Emulsifiers Work:

Emulsifiers have molecules with two distinct ends:

-Hydrophilic (water-loving) part

-Hydrophobic (water-repelling or fat-loving) part

When added to a mixture of oil and water, emulsifiers position themselves at the interface between the two:

-The hydrophilic end interacts with water

-The hydrophobic end interacts with oil

The backbone of lecithin is made of glycerol, which bonds up to three other molecules. Two of the molecules that are bonded are fatty acids, and these are hydrophobic. Due to this, the structure of lecithin is similar to that of fats or lipids. Phosphoric acid is the third substance that is attached to glycerol. The phosphoric acid also has an amino acid attached to it, also known as choline. This end of lecithin that has phosphate/amino alcohol is hydrophilic.

• The hydrophilic (polar) part of lecithin is attracted to water.

• The hydrophobic (non-polar) part is attracted to oil or fat.

Shelly Schmidt, Ph.D., a professor in food science has explained emulsifiers by saying, “emulsifiers are molecules that contain both a hydrophilic, water loving, and hydrophobic, water hating, portion.”

The reason lecithin makes such a great emulsifier is because the hydrophilic end dissolves in water, whereas the hydrophobic end dissolves in oil. The only place the lecithin likes to be in an emulsion is at the edge of oil droplets; its hydrophilic end toward the water while its hydrophobic end in touch with the oil.

Since lecithin is a natural emulsifier, it allows substances in foods, such as bread and others to combine naturally. Lecithin extracted from egg yolks is particularly effective in enhancing the sensory attributes of food, such as flavor and tenderness. In fact, it even works the same way inside our bodies. In simple words, the purpose of an emulsifier is to allow normal ingredients to combine that would normally not be able to combine by themselves.

Here’s why:

1. Atomic Structure Stays the Same

Water is made of H₂O molecules, which consist of 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom bonded together. Whether it’s ice (solid), liquid water, or steam (gas), each H₂O molecule remains chemically the same — the atoms don’t change.

2. What’s Changing Then?

When water changes its state (solid ↔ liquid ↔ gas), it’s undergoing a physical change, not a chemical change. What’s actually changing is:

• The energy of the molecules

• The movement and spacing between molecules

For example:

• In ice, the H₂O molecules are locked in a rigid structure (low energy).

• In liquid water, the molecules move more freely (more energy).

• In steam, the molecules move very fast and are far apart (high energy).

3. No Atomic Change = No New Substance

Because the atoms are not rearranged into new configurations or combined with other atoms, water remains chemically the same substance across all states.

Here's a more detailed breakdown: 

• Visible Fats: 

  • These are the fats that are readily apparent and easy to identify, such as butter, cooking oils, margarine, and the fat visible on meat. 

  • They are often used as table spreads or for cooking. 

• Invisible Fats: 

  • These fats are not as obvious and are found within various foods, including meat, dairy products, and a wide range of processed foods. 

  • Examples include the fat in cheese, cakes, biscuits, and fried foods. 

  • They can also be found in foods like avocados, nuts, and certain processed foods.