• Children often understand more language than they can produce.
• The ability to understand and produce language are both part of linguistic competence, which is an internal mental and physical ability.
• Linguistic competence has many different modes and competencies that range from phonology to discourse in different sociolinguistic contexts.
• A theory of language must distinguish between production competence and comprehension competence.
  
  One way to distinguish between comprehension and production in linguistic ability is to use different tasks that tap into each ability separately. For example, for comprehension, tasks could include listening or reading comprehension tests, while for production, tasks could include speaking or writing tasks.
  
  
  Additionally, it is important to consider the context in which the language is being used. For example, a person may have high production competence in formal writing but may struggle with producing language in a casual conversation. Therefore, a comprehensive assessment of linguistic ability should take into account different modes of language use, such as formal versus informal contexts, and different skills, such as speaking, listening, reading, and writing.
  
  
  It is also important to recognize that linguistic competence is not static and can change over time. Therefore, regular assessments and evaluations can help to identify areas of strength and weakness and inform targeted interventions to improve both comprehension and production competence.

• Scovel (1969) suggested that the brain's plasticity before puberty allows children to acquire a second language, but lateralization may make it difficult for fluent control of L2.
• Muñoz and Singleton (2011) reviewed related studies and concluded that findings cannot decisively prove the existence of a critical period.
• Neurolinguistic research has focused on the role of the right hemisphere in L2 acquisition.
• Obler (1981) noted significant right hemisphere activity during the early stages of learning L2, citing guessing at meanings and using formulaic utterances as examples.
• Genesee (1982) found that learners in informal contexts use greater right hemisphere processing than left.
• Urgesi and Fabbro (2009) concluded that the right hemisphere is crucially involved in processing the pragmatic aspects of language use.
• Such studies suggest that L2 learners, especially adults, may benefit from more encouragement of right-brain activity in the classroom context.
  
  Lateralization refers to the tendency for certain cognitive functions or processes to be more dominant in one hemisphere of the brain than the other.
  
  Brain lateralization is the process in which certain cognitive functions in our brain is dominant in one hemisphere than the other.
  
  From this, we can conclude that hemispheric lateralization and brain plasticity play a significant role in language acquisition, particularly in second language acquisition. While the left hemisphere is typically associated with language processing, research suggests that the right hemisphere also plays a role in L2 acquisition. The brain's ability to change and adapt through plasticity is highest in childhood but continues throughout adulthood, suggesting that language learning is possible at any age. More research is needed to determine the precise role of hemispheric lateralization and brain plasticity in L2 acquisition, but it appears that encouraging right-brain activity in the classroom context may benefit adult learners in particular.
  
  It has been suggested that the right hemisphere is more involved in the early stages of second language acquisition, particularly in processing certain aspects of language, such as prosody, intonation, and nonliteral language (such as metaphors). Additionally, research has shown that L2 learners who are in informal contexts (such as immersion or study abroad programs) tend to rely more on right hemisphere processing than those in formal classroom settings. 
  
  However, it's important to note that the left hemisphere still plays a significant role in language processing, especially in later stages of L2 acquisition when more complex grammatical structures are being learned. Overall, the involvement of the right hemisphere in L2 acquisition is still a topic of ongoing research and debate in the field of neurolinguistics.

- Children learning two languages simultaneously use similar strategies to acquire them.

• Based on Krashen's theories of L2 acquisition, which emphasize the importance of "comprehensible input" and delaying production until speech "emerges"
• A methodological offshoot of Krashen's work that advocates for learners to "pick up" a language, rather than being forced to study grammar in the classroom
• Utilizes TPR activities at the beginning level to simulate child language acquisition
• Highlights everyday language situations (shopping, home and health topics, etc.)
• Teacher delivers comprehensible input, but learners do not need to say anything until they feel ready to do so
• Delay of oral production can be pushed too far, and it is important for the teacher to encourage students to talk at an early stage.
  
  

• Dictogloss: The teacher reads a passage to the students at a natural pace, and the students listen without taking notes. The teacher then reads the passage again, and this time the students take notes. Finally, the students work together in pairs or small groups to recreate the passage as accurately as possible based on their notes.
• Picture Narration: The teacher shows the class a series of pictures depicting a story, and the students work together to create a spoken or written narrative of the story. This activity helps students develop their listening comprehension skills and their ability to create a coherent story in the target language.
• Role-Playing: Students are given a scenario and assigned roles to play. For example, students could act out a restaurant scene, with one student playing the waiter and the other playing the customer. This activity provides students with opportunities to use the target language in a realistic context.
• Interviews: Students work in pairs or small groups to interview each other. This activity can be focused on specific grammar points or vocabulary themes, and helps students develop their speaking and listening skills.
• Storytelling: Students take turns telling a story, either individually or as a group. The teacher can provide prompts or specific vocabulary to incorporate into the story, and this activity helps students develop their speaking and storytelling skills.
  
  
• Comprehensible input refers to spoken or written language input that is understandable to the learner, and that is slightly beyond their current level of proficiency. Here are some examples of comprehensible input:
  
  
  • Simplified or adapted texts that are written with the learner's level in mind
  • Visual aids, such as pictures, diagrams, or videos that support the meaning of spoken or written language
  • Gestures and body language that help to convey meaning
  • Realia, or real-life objects, that can be used to support understanding
  • Contextual clues, such as the topic of the conversation or the situation in which the language is being used, that help the learner to infer meaning
  • Repetition and rephrasing of language input, which allows the learner to hear the same language in different contexts and with different levels of complexity.

•  In the 1970s, research on second language acquisition (SLA) led to the realization that no single method of teaching could guarantee universal success in L2 learning.
•  Individual variation was found to be an important factor in language learning, with some learners being naturally better than others.
•  Rubin and Stern (1975) identified attributes of successful language learners, which included taking charge of their own learning, being creative and experimental, learning chunks of language, using memory and comprehension strategies, and monitoring themselves and learning from mistakes.
•  This led to the development of strategies-based instruction (SBI), which aimed to provide teachers with a taxonomy of strategic options for their learners.
•  Norton and Toohey (2001) adopted a sociocultural approach that viewed learners as participants in a community of language users, where each learner creates their own identity and avenues of success.
•  Cognitive linguists criticized the concept of language learning strategies as being ill-defined and not supported by empirical research, but others contend that attention to strategic options can be productive in language pedagogy.
•  Self-regulation is a preferred concept for capturing such pursuits.
•  Teachers should attend to common strategies for successful learning across cultures and contexts but also be mindful of individual needs, variations, and specific cultural contexts of learning.

• Rogers' work had a significant impact on our present understanding of learning, particularly in educational contexts.
• His views on humanistic psychology were based on a phenomenological perspective, which contrasts with Skinner's behaviorism.
• Rogers believed that fully functioning individuals live at peace with all their feelings and reactions and can reach their full potential.
• Rogers suggested that the goal of education is to facilitate change and learning, and learning how to learn is more important than being taught from a superior perspective.
• Many current education systems prescribe curricular goals and objectives, which deny individuals freedom and dignity.
• Rogers believed that teachers should be facilitators of learning, discard superiority and omniscience, trust and accept students as valuable individuals, and keep open lines of communication.
• Rogers' humanism represents a radical departure from scientific analysis in behavioral psychology and strictly cognitive theories.
• Rogers was not as concerned with the actual cognitive process of learning, as he felt that if the context for learning is properly created, students will learn what they need to.
• Teachers could take a nondirective approach too far, leading to lost time and a lack of facilitative tension needed for learning.
• Competitive environments can have positive effects on learning as long as they don't damage self-esteem or hinder motivation to learn.

• This chapter also distinguishes between learning styles and learning strategies. While learning styles are relatively stable traits that indicate how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment, learning strategies are specific methods, behaviors, steps, or techniques used by students to enhance their own learning. They are contextualized and may vary from moment to moment, from one context to another, or from one culture to another, within an individual.

• There are various types of learning styles, including field independence vs. field dependence, random vs. sequential, global vs. particular, inductive vs. deductive, synthetic vs. analytical, concrete vs. abstract, impulsive vs. reflective, left-brain vs. right-brain dominance, ambiguity tolerance vs. intolerance, and visual vs. auditory vs. kinesthetic modalities. 

• The text acknowledges that the identification and measurement of learning styles have not met with universal acceptance from researchers, and some have raised problematic issues in conceptualizing them. Nonetheless, learning styles remain an important starting point for a teacher in assessing an approach to an individual learner that will be appropriate.

1. Signal learning. Attending to something in one’s environment (music, animal sounds, human voices, etc.), typical of Pavlovian classical condi- tioning. Linguistic application: human beings notice and attend to human language. 
2. Stimulus–response learning. The learner makes a response to a “dis- criminated” stimulus, a specific attendance to a single element in one’s perceptual environment. Linguistic application: Noticing and responding to specific sounds, words, and nonverbal gestures, and receiving a reward for the response. 
3. Chaining. Learning a chain of two or more stimulus-response connec- tions. Linguistic application: Stringing several sounds or words together to attempt to communicate meaning. 
4. Verbal association. Attaching meaning to verbal/nonverbal chains. Linguistic application: Assigning meaning to various verbal stimuli. “Nonsense” syllables become meaningful for communication. 
5. Multiple discrimination. Learning to make different responses to many varying stimuli, which may resemble each other. Linguistic application: Noticing differences between/among sounds, words, or phrases that are similar. For example, minimal pairs (sheep/ship), homonyms (left/left), and synonyms (maybe/perhaps). 
6. Concept learning. Learning to make a common response to a class of stimuli even though the individual members of that class may differ widely from each other. Linguistic application: The word “hot” applies to stoves, candles, and irons; young children learn that four-legged farm animals are not all “horsies.” 
7. Principle learning. Learning a chain of two or more concepts, a cluster of related concepts. Linguistic application: Verbs in the past tense are classified into regular and irregular forms, yet both forms express the con- cept of tense. 
8. Problem solving. Previously acquired concepts and principles are com- bined in a conscious focus on an unresolved or ambiguous set of events. Linguistic application: Learning that metaphorical language is not simply idiosyncratic, but connected to cultural world views and ways of thinking, thus explaining why a dead person is “gone.” Also, using language to solve problems, such as information gap exercises in a classroom. 

• Language aptitude is typically assessed through standardized tests or assessments, which may involve the following steps:
  1. Identification of the specific language(s) to be assessed.
  2. Selection of an appropriate assessment tool, such as the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT).
  3. Administration of the assessment to the individual being evaluated.
  4. Scoring and interpretation of the results to determine the individual's level of language aptitude.
  5. Feedback and recommendations for language learning based on the assessment results.
• The assessment may measure various aspects of language aptitude, such as grammatical sensitivity, phonetic coding ability, rote learning ability, inductive language learning ability, and overall language learning aptitude.
  
  
• IS IT STILL RELEVANT?
  Yes, language aptitude tests are still relevant as they provide valuable insights into an individual's potential to learn and acquire languages. They can help identify an individual's strengths and weaknesses in various language learning areas, such as grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation, which can guide language instruction and training programs. Additionally, language aptitude tests can be used for various purposes, including selecting candidates for language-specific jobs or language immersion programs, and identifying individuals who may need additional language support.

1. The acquisition-learning hypothesis: Krashen argued that there are two ways of developing language ability - language acquisition (unconscious process) and language learning (conscious process). Acquisition is more important than learning in achieving fluency in a second language.
2. The input hypothesis: Krashen posited that language acquisition occurs when learners are exposed to input that is just beyond their current level of competence (i+1). This means that the input should be comprehensible, but also challenging enough to push the learner's linguistic boundaries.
3. The monitor hypothesis: Krashen proposed that language learning can act as a monitor or editor of language output, helping learners to correct errors in their speech or writing. However, the monitor should not be used too much, as it can impede fluency.
4. The natural order hypothesis: Krashen suggested that learners acquire grammatical structures in a predictable order, regardless of their first language or the instructional order in which they are presented.
5. The affective filter hypothesis: Krashen believed that language acquisition is affected by affective factors such as motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety. A low affective filter allows learners to take risks and make mistakes, which can aid language acquisition.

• Input should be comprehensible and slightly challenging for learners to achieve maximum language acquisition.
• Affective factors such as motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety can impact language acquisition and should be taken into consideration in language instruction.
• Learners should be given ample opportunities to acquire language through exposure and interaction, rather than being forced to learn through explicit instruction and memorization.
• Teachers should encourage learners to take risks and make mistakes, rather than focusing on correction and error-free output.
• Instruction should follow a natural order of grammar acquisition, rather than following a predetermined syllabus or sequence.

• Studies separate language learning strategies into those for acquiring receptive (listening and reading) and communicative (speaking and writing) skills.
• Learning (input) strategies for listening and reading include monitoring, elaboration, inferencing, selective attention, advance organizers, prediction, and note-taking.
• Reading strategies also include bottom-up and top-down processing, predicting, guessing from context, brainstorming, and summarizing.
• Communication (output) strategies involve conscious plans to solve communicative problems, such as compensatory strategies when lacking linguistic resources.
• Communication strategies can be viewed positively as part of a learner's overall strategic competence, including self-regulatory strategies and subconscious or implicit strategies.

• The effectiveness of strategy use and instruction cross-culturally is a theoretical issue.
• Studies conducted in many countries suggest that strategy instruction and autonomous learning are viable avenues to success.
• Cross-cultural factors may either facilitate or interfere with strategy use among learners.

• The measurement of strategy use is a controversial issue in research and pedagogy.
• Oxford's Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) is a widely used questionnaire that identifies strategies.
• The SILL presents a possible strategy and responders must indicate on a five-point scale how frequently they use it.
• Self-report questionnaires may not always be accurate.
• Other methods of identifying styles and strategies include self-reports through interviews, written diaries and journals, think-aloud protocols, student portfolios, and inventories that focus on learning the four skills.

1. Strategies: These are the various methods that learners use to acquire and use language, including cognitive, metacognitive, affective, and social strategies.
2. Second Language Learning: This component encompasses the processes involved in learning a second language, such as input processing, output production, and interaction with others.
3. Reference sources: These are the sources of information that learners use to help them make sense of language input and output, including the learner's own knowledge and experiences, the target language and culture, and various types of learning resources.