Theories assist scholars in describing and explaining different aspects of international relations. There are many ideas about the role of the individual, the concept of the state, sovereignty, and interactions between states and other actors. Thus, theories also help us to make this important information understandable. These theories are used to describe and understand international organizations. 

Liberals see international organizations as organizations where states try to understand and solve their common problems by acting together. According to liberals, international organizations are an important arena with many functions for discussing the cooperation of states, their development, and common goals. Their main objectives are to try to prevent possible dangers that wars may bring, protect common values and ensure their development and order. They organize some activities to ensure that issues that pose a risk or pose a problem for states are addressed, and they can strengthen the international regime. The scholar noted that liberal theories help us understand the relationship between states' domestic policy and intergovernmental cooperation. Finally, positivist feminist theorists argue that many international relations theories, including liberal theory, ignore the presence of women in international organizations. Liberal feminists argue that women should be involved in international relations and will articulate well the international affairs that affect women.

Realists see states as the most important primary actor in the international system. States compete with each other for power and there is little cooperation. In fact, one of the academics stated that states see international organizations as a tool for themselves. International organizations have effects only on the power of states. Therefore, it has no influence on the behavior of states or world politics. Most realist theorists argue that cooperation between states is less likely because international institutions and agreements do not have the power to enforce them. In addition, realists argue that deterrence and the balance of power are more effective in keeping the peace.

While social constructivists examine international organizations, they try to obtain findings about how their social content, behavior, interests, and norms have an impact on actors. However, they can become tools that cause changes in social understandings, or they can become teachers of new values and policies that will socialize states. According to some studies, constructivists are defined as actors who create a common goal by not considering the interests of international organizations, states, and other actors in international relations. While most constructivists believe that international organizations are working on positive results such as preventing colonialism, protecting human rights, and solving the problem of poverty, others believe that some dysfunctions such as lack of accountability, incomplete practices, and duties may occur.

The English School is associated with theories of realism, liberalism, and constructivism. Its proponents argue that the existence of sovereign states does not always mean that these states will be hostile to each other. Even, they have created common rules and agreements to solve many problems. States recognize and enforce the existence of international rules that apply to all. Like international law, international organizations have a variable structure created and regulated by institutions. Scholars of this theory, like realists, argue that power is more important than rules and norms.

Critical theories offer new ideas to understand the world outside of conventional thinking. It opposes realism's targeting of power and liberalism's optimistic view that peace can be achieved. Other prominent approaches in this theory are dependency theory, Marxists, and neo-Marxists. All three approaches argue that states and the capitalist class use international law and organizations as tools for their own interests and goals.

2- Explain Why John Mearsheimer is very pessimistic about the success of International Organizations?  

John Mearsheimer does not trust international institutions for their optimistic view of promoting international peace. Because he argues that the theories that support this idea are logically problematic. The most effective example of this is that institutions have little influence on government behaviour. However, these theories can only exert their influence in the academic and political world. The theory of realism presents a harsh world where forces compete, but it does not offer enough solutions to make it good. So, he adopted it as a theory of pessimism. Nonetheless, realism regards war as part of political methods and even as a necessary state activity. In this theory, both parties are forced to be directed towards the same goal in accordance with the balance of power. Institutionalist theories acknowledge reality's power competition but reject the idea that war is part of politics. He argues that institutionalists do not truly define the world with these theories, so it is normal for their policies to fail.

 

 

2- What does the article on “Pathologies of International Institutions” mean when they say IOs are independent actors? What is the basis of autonomy and what kind of power they carry in the real world?
The authors stated that IOs are more than a reflection of states, they can take place in global politics as a single power and an independent organization. In addition, the fact that IOs are powerful actors with independent influence on the world has created the possibility that a basis for autonomy can be provided. Nonetheless, IOs use power when constructing the social world. Neoliberals focused on IOs to help states overcome societal problems and provide lasting cooperation, Realists focused on stabilizing forces in world politics, and Constructive focused on more humane characteristics of I0s. Therefore, the researchers, based on theoretical foundations, suggested that IOs may lead to some undesirable behaviors.

3-According to the article, explain 2 pathologies inherent in IOs with examples.
Bureaucratic universalism has to simplify diversity in order to produce universal rules and categories independent of external factors. This bureaucratic view is expressed as the ability to transfer technical knowledge between conditions. For example, it is argued that the formula applied by the IMF to combat the rapid depreciation in the exchange rate during the Asian financial crisis was not successful and policies should be created accordingly.
Bureaucracies create rules that will provide a predictable response to environmental stimuli to prevent decisions from leading to error and problematic decisions. However, when bureaucracies shrink, environmental and institutional developments occur. therefore, deviations from established rules need to be calculated and over time some exceptions become the rule. For instance, before 1980, UNHCR saw return as only one of the permanent solutions to refugee crises. In their view, the return had to be both safe and voluntary so that forced return did not violate the international legal principle of non-refoulment, which is one of the cornerstones of international refugee law. According to many commentators, UNHCR has lowered barriers to return over the years. This led to the normalization of deviations and deviations from organizational norms accumulated over time. As a result, there has been a reduction in barriers to return and an increase in the frequency of involuntary returns.


 

Telecommunication
Telecommunication services started to develop with the invention of the telegraph and the telephone in the 19th century and achieved significant changes until the 21st century with the invention of various technological developments and technological new tools. In 1865, the International Telegraph Union was established for individuals to communicate over a single international network. However, with the change and development of networks and devices, the International Radio Union (ITU) has adopted informal understandings. But governments must respect the frequencies of foreign firms. Interacting with multiple governance structures, ITU is one of the organizations focused on communication. It pays great attention to technical standards and prevents interference in radio broadcasts. While the development of the internet caused globalization and the spread of technology to the world, it also brought up the possibility of new governance problems. The changing balances in internet governance enabled the state and IGOs ​​to act together. The global digital divide in the financing of telecommunication infrastructure was causing problems in developing countries. That's why, through the ITU, the UN gathered WSIS and made incentives to solve the problems created by the internet. An advisory group was formed to discuss internet governance issues involving civil society actors such as IGOs. While in the nineteenth century, only one state and IGO were active, in the twenty-first century, this situation began to take place in governance with many stakeholders, especially ITU. 

In the 19th century, two industrialists, Welsh Robert Owen and Frenchman Daniel Legrand, advocated the International Labor Organization (ILO) to protect workers from abuse. Later, the International Trade Union Federation was formed in 1913 to protect the rights of workers. With the right to vote in many European countries, labor also gained political importance, and then the ideas of these two industrialists were accepted at the Paris peace conference. Thus, the ILO became an autonomous organization within the League of Nations. Setting standards of treatment for workers has been its main activity. While the eight conventions he created were accepted by many countries, the United States only adopted conventions prohibiting forced and child labor. By 1946, the ILO became an UN-specialized agency. It conducts its work through the International Labor Conference, the Governing Board, and the International Labor Office, each a tripartite representative body made up of government officials, employers, and workers. This combination of government and non-governmental representatives is a unique approach, unlike any other IGO. Initially, the ILO focused on standards for improving the working conditions of male wage earners. These Standards were later revised to include occupational health and safety. In recent years, the ILO has aimed to address inequalities stemming from globalization by focusing on job creation, labor rights, and women workers. These issues of the ILO overlap with trade issues and the work of the World Trade Organization (WTO). International governance efforts on labor issues have a long history. Other areas of economic activity have become the subject of international cooperation since the end of the Second World War.

Climate crisis is a term that describes global warming and climate change and its effects. The IPCC considers the basis of climate change as warming of the atmosphere and ocean, decreasing the amount of snow and ice, rising sea levels, and increasing greenhouse gas concentrations. In the Fifth Assessment Report, published in early 2014, it is emphasized that the human impact on climate change is clear, and the rate of change is increasing, but mitigation and disaster prevention are still possible. In 1988, the IPCC was established with the encouragement of bureaucrats from the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) to recognize the problem of climate change. Its purpose is to synthesize information on climate change and suggest possible responses. Over time, the IPCC caught the attention of scientists, providing to build a community around this topic. In 1992, at the UN Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro, with the participation of nearly one hundred countries, signed the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC), the first step towards establishing a regime to manage climate change. Then, in 1997, the Kyoto Protocol was added to the UNFCC, which aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and requires developed countries to reduce these emissions according to a timetable. This protocol aims to meet local emission targets by funding the greenhouse gas reduction projects of developed states and private companies in developing countries.
How is governance established in the environmental issue area? Who is involved in the governance of environmental issues?

International environmental issues have become part of the public agenda over the last 50 years, largely as a result of existing long-term trends. First, there was a gradual expansion of scientific knowledge that allowed people to collect data that tracked environmental trends. Subsequently, the number of environmentally oriented non-governmental organizations such as the Bird Conservation Society and the Sierra Club, the Wild Fauna Conservation Society and the International Union for Conservation of Nature increased.  The growing interest in the environment has resulted in the mobilization of environmental activists and the consolidation of the concept of interdependence of all living things in the public consciousness. In the following years, interest in environmental problems expanded to include both the protection of the natural environment and the containment of the destructive effects of industrialization. Biologist Garrett Hardin's article, published in 1968, helped lay the groundwork for the theoretical and practical dilemmas of mutual benefit posed by many environmental issues. Nearly fifty years later, the effort to establish multifaceted environmental governance for a wide range of issues continues. International conferences sponsored by the UN, such as non-governmental organizations and epistemic societies, have played an important role in the development of global environmental governance. They brought environmental issues to the international agenda and provided frameworks for negotiations and subsequent institutionalization. Only UN-sponsored conferences have also addressed the evolution of environmental governance. Environmental NGOs rarely unite in approach or ideological orientation. Some prefer to work in the present situation and others oppose any change, while others want radical change. In addition, Environmental NGOs can take critical positions as they are not dependent on nation-states and do not depend on states for funds. Still, the impact of NGOs on environmental governance is a matter of debate and cannot be easily evaluated. Epistemic communities play a vital role in global environmental governance processes. By the 1970s, dominant epistemic communities had formed of resource managers and liberal economists interested in the international environment. As interest in environmental issues increased, ecologists and other environmental scientists in various specialities formed subject-specific epistemic societies. Scientists are the cornerstones of these epistemic communities, serving as professionals who can provide analyzes of key data needed to uncover issues and consult governments and international organizations on policy options.