The blending of Malay and Javanese cultures is how Banjar got its start. They were brought together long ago by a ruler who practiced Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism. The Banjar are now almost completely Muslim, having converted to Islam around the 15^th century. However, a few Hindu-based ideas still linger, such as the belief in “spirits of the soil”.  At that time, the Banjar kingdom expanded and the Banjar tribe was born. In the 16^th century, the sultanate of Banjar, a powerful Islamic kingdom, rose to prominence in South Kalimantan. This kingdom played a key role in shaping the Banjar people’s identity and culture.

The Banjar people, who were originally from Kalimantan, progressively spread throughout Borneo, most likely as a result of their trading and maritime lifestyle. The Banjar of Malaysia live in the region of Sabah, which is the northernmost part of the island of Borneo. Their area was once notorious for smuggling with peoples of the Philippines and of neighbouring Kalimantan, Indonesia. Today, it is a developing agricultural district.  Their seafaring and trading way of life led to the spread of Banjarese culture and language, including into parts of Borneo.

The Banjar language, an Austronesian language spoken primarily in South Kalimantan, Indonesia, and parts of Malaysia, is divided into two main dialects, Banjar Hulu and Banjar Kuala, each with distinct phonetic and vocabulary features. The specific dialects spoken in Malaysia may vary. It shares strong linguistic ties with Malay and Dayak languages, reflecting the historical acculturation between Malay settlers and indigenous Dayak communities. Banjar language is considered a dialect of Malay and is closely related to both Malay and Indonesian. The language also incorporates Arabic loanwords, highlighting the Islamic influence on Banjar culture.

Despite modernization and the dominance of Indonesian, the Banjar language remains a vital part of the community’s identity, preserved through oral traditions, folk songs, and daily use, with ongoing efforts to document and promote it for future generations. Its also serve as lingua France for communication between different Banjarese communities in Malaysia especially in Sabah and Perak. The language is used in various cultural practices, including traditional songs, literature, and proverbs.

Other names for Banjarese include Labuhan, Banjar, Banjarese, Banjar Malay, and Banjar.  Banjar Hulu and Banjar Kuala are the two primary dialects.  It is regarded as a Malay dialect and shares strong kinship with Indonesian and Malay. Most of the Latin alphabet used in Banjarese are the same as the one used in Malay language and occasionally an Arabic variant are used to write Banjarese. As in phonology or sound system of the alphabet, vowel system of Banjarese are similar to Indonesian (a, i, u, e, o) while its consonant inventory is close to Malay. It appears in literature, television, and journalism.  

The Banjarese language is spoken by the Banjarese people, an ethnic group primarily located in South Kalimantan, Indonesia. Eventhough the origin is in Indonesia, there are also around 5000 speakers of Banjar in Sabah, Malaysia, specifically in districts like Keningau, Sandakan, Tawau and Tenom. Other than Sabah, Perak are known as the biggest Banjar ethnicity settlement as 90% Banjarese is in Bagan Serai, Perak. While Banjar language isn’t the primary language for most Malaysians, it remains relevant, particularly within Banjar communities in Malaysia. The age of Banjar language cannot be determined exactly, but it roots probably go back several centuries. However, it is still legendary as it serves as a marker of cultural identity and a language of familiarity, especially for younger generations. The preservation and revitalization of the language are aided by learning and using Banjarese. The Banjar community benefits from this since it guarantees the survival of their language and adds to the global linguistic tapestry, fostering cultural and linguistic diversity in a globalized world where dominant languages frequently eclipse regional languages.

Potter, L. (1993). Banjarese in and beyond Hulu Sungai, South Kalimantan: A study of cultural independence, economic opportunity and mobility. In New Challenges in the Modern Economic History (pp. 264-298). Brill.

Fuze, M. F. I., & Jaafar, S. R. S. Satisfying the Minimal Size of Banjarese Prefixes through Vowel Lengthening and Glottal Insertion.

Dayang~Bungah. (2015, March 21). Saya gadis Banjar: PENUTUR BAHASA BANJAR. https://amalmustafa-momentous.blogspot.com/2015/03/saya-gadis-banjar-penutur-bahasa-banjar.html

Megat, S. (2024, December 30). Etnik Banjar di Perak. The Malaya Post. https://themalayapost.my/etnik-banjar-di-perak/

Banjarese language and alphabet. (n.d.). https://www.omniglot.com/writing/banjarese.htm

ILoveLanguages! (2025, March 25). BANJARESE LANGUAGE, PEOPLE, & CULTURE [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ApGV_QC7Z84

About Javanese Ethnicity

Language Used by the Javanese

Vocabulary of Javanese Language

Example of Javanese Vocabularies

Does Language Used Still Relevant Nowadays?

References

About Banjar Ethnicity

Language Used by the Banjarese

Vocabulary of Banjar Language

Example of Banjarese Vocabularies

Does Language Used Still Relevant Nowadays?

References

About Chinese-Cantonese Ethnicity

Language Used by the Cantonese

Vocabulary of Cantonese Language

Example of Cantonese Vocabularies

Does Language Used Still Relevant Nowadays?

References

About Melanau Ethnicity

Language Used by the Melanau

Vocabulary of Melanau Language

Example of Melanau Vocabularies

Does Language Used Still Relevant Nowadays?

References

About Iban Ethnicity

Language Used by the Ibanese

Vocabulary of Iban Language

Example of Iban Vocabularies

Does Language Used Still Relevant Nowadays?

References

The late nineteenth century marked the beginning of Javanese mobility.  Due to the rapid rise in poverty and the difficulty in obtaining land, rural Javan life was extremely challenging during that time, which prompted immigration in search of a better standard of living.  The Javanese laboured on new plantations that were owned by foreigners outside of Java.  Malaysia is one of the main migration destinations.  They migrated voluntarily, even though the majority were forced laborers. One of the areas that became the destination of the Javanese in Malaysia was Selangor. Since the 1880s, the number of Javanese who have come to Selangor has continued to grow. Besides Selangor, the arrival of the Javanese in Johor and Perak is not a new phenomenon. At one point, the process of assimilation of Javanese people in Malaysia occurred. The process of assimilating the Javanese people can be seen from the population, marriage, and the role of educational institutions. The arrival of the Javanese to Malaysia has been started since 16^th century. The Javanese in Malaysia, in addition to the adaptation and cultural assimilation with the local community, they are also known as a strong community in maintaining their customs such as food like Nasi Ambeng, Sambal Jawa, clothing, way of life in tradition of mutual help which is rewang, arts and use of language.

Language used is Javanese Language. Most migrated Javanese were able to assimilate well within the Malay community in Malaysia due to the Malay language which has played an essential role in the assimilation of the Javanese among the Malaysian communities. Javanese language originated from the Austronesian language family. Specifically, it belongs to the Malayo-Polynesian branch which is a convenient cover term for the Austronesian language of the Philippines. The oldest attested form, known as Old Javanese or Kawi, dates back to the Sukabumi inscription in 804 Century. This language was prevalent in Java between the 8^th and 15^th century. Kawi was the primary language of literature and administration in Java during this period.

There are three level of formalities in Javanese; Ngoko, Madya and Krama. Ngoko (informal) is utilized between close family members and friends.  When speaking to people of lesser rank, such as bosses speaking to subordinates or elders addressing younger people, those of higher social standing also utilize it. Madya (polite informal) is neither informal nor formal used in informal situations such as between strangers on the street. Krama (polite formal) is utilized in formal settings between people of equal standing.  Public speeches and official announcements also use it. 

Understanding Javanese culture is necessary for the intricate application of these various styles.  The majority of Javanese are not proficient in every style.  They typically study the fundamentals of madya and ngoko.  Learning this linguistic social stratification can be challenging for young Javanese.

The earliest known writing in Javanese dates from the 4^th century, at which time Javanese was written with the Pallava alphabet (a style of Grantha script named after the Pallava dynasty of Southern India). By the 10^th century the Kawi alphabet, which developed from Pallava, had a distinct Javanese form. For a period from the 15^th century onwards, Javanese was also witten with a version of the Arabic alphabet, called pegon (ن ݢ ٙ ڤٙي ٙ) pronounced as “peh-gon”. by the 17^th century, the Javanese alphabet had developed into its current form.

Since the Dutch introduced the Latin alphabet to Indonesia in the 19^th century, the Javanese alphabet has gradually been supplanted. Today it is used almost exclusively by scholars and for decoration. Those who can read and write it are held in high esteem. Javanese in Malaysia generally does not use the Carakan script. While Carakan or Aksara Jawa is the traditional Javanese script, it is not commonly used by Javanese speakers in Malaysia. Instead, Javanese in Malaysia, is primarily written using the Latin alphabet. Javanese speakers in Malaysia, have adapted to using the Latin alphabet, which is the standard writing system in Malaysia and Indonesia. Linguistically, in terms of vowels and consonants, the structure of Malay language is similar to Javanese language. In addition to the standard letters of the alphabet, four digraphs are used: ng to designate the velar nasal /ŋ/; ny to represent pre-vocalic palatalized /ɲ/; th and dhare used to represent retroflex (coronal consonant where the tongue has a flat, concave or even curled shape) /ţ/ and /đ/ respectively.

While the Javanese language is still spoken by many Javanese communities in Malaysia especially in Selangor, Johor and Perak, its use is generally declining, especially among younger generations. Malay, being the national and official language, has influenced the shift towards Malay as the primary language of communication. In urban areas, younger generations of Javanese Malaysians have largely adopted malay or other malay dialects as their primary means of communication, rather than Javanese. It is also found that most of the younger generations are less likely to use Javanese language in their daily life due to the lack of exposure at school and home, and they are too shy to speak the language. There are also group of people who only understand a few Javanese words but they are not able to understand the whole context. Moreover, most of the younger generation do not fully familiar with the Javanese language. In most household of Javanese descendant, only the first and second generation did utilize the use of language in their daily life. The third generation most likely would only understand but unable to speak due to lack of exposure or travelling out of hometown and associating with other cultures.

Matur nuwun – Thank you

Pamit – Goodbye

Lanang – man

Wedok – woman

Aku arep mangan – I want to eat

Hariz, H. B., Osman, N. S. S., Samsudin, A. Z. H., Ahmad, M. N., Ab Rahman, A., & Sulaiman, M. (2020). Mengenali Masyarakat Jawa. Jurnal Sejarah Lisan Malaysia (JSLIM), 4(1), 24-39. [Hariz, 2020]

(World Language Library Learn Javanese Online (Båså Jåwå), 2018)

Yannuar, N., Hoogervorst, T., & Klamer, M. (2022). Examining Javanese Phonology Through Word-Reversal Practices. Oceanic Linguistics 61(1), 560-588. 

Wikipedia contributors. (2025, April 26). Retroflex consonant. Wikipedia.

MustGo Travel Agency. (2021, July 1). Javanese Language - Structure, Writing & Alphabet - MustGo.

Sunarti, L., & Fadeli, T. R. (2021). Preserving Javanese identity and cultural heritage in Malaysia. Cogent Arts & Humanities, 8(1).

Javanese language and alphabet. (n.d.).

Bujang, A., Sawani, Y., Johari, A., Bibi, Z. H., & Sahari, S. H. (2023). The Use and Mastery of the Javanese Language among New Generation. Borneo International Journal eISSN 2636-9826, 6(4), 25-30.

The origin of Cantonese in Malaysia is tied to the Chinese migration that took place mainly during the 19^th and early 20^th centuries, particularly under British colonial rule. Cantonese-speaking Chinese cam primarily from Guangdong province, especially from cities like Guangzhou, Foshan, and surrounding areas. These migrants were part of a larger wave of Southern Chinese who sought better economic opportunities due to poverty, wars and political unrest in China during late Qing Dynasty. The British brought Chinese laborers to Peninsular Malaysia to work in tin mines, plantations and as traders and craftsmen. Many Cantonese settled in urban centers, especially in Kuala Lumpur, which became a Cantonese-majority city. The mining town of Ipoh and parts of Selangor and Pahang also saw large Cantonese communities. Throughout the development of the Cantonese community in the Klang Valley, the qualities which seem to stand out among the Cantonese are their gift in establishing useful and reliable business networks and their leadership hierarchy.

Language used by the Chinese-Cantonese is Cantonese and Mandarin language. Early Chinese immigrants often formed clan associations according to their own language like Cantonese associations. This helped preserve their language, culture and networks. Over time, Cantonese became dominant in certain cities like Kuala Lumpur due to the community size and economic influence. Cantonese-language media especially from Hong Kong, such as TVB dramas and Cantopop became very popular in Malaysia from the 1970s inward. This help reinforces Cantonese as a strong cultural and linguistic identity in Malaysian Chinese society. Many Chinese schools in Malaysia also teach Cantonese as a second language, along with Mandarin and English. Even though Cantonese language originally came from Guangdong province, Malaysian Cantonese differs shaped by multilingual surroundings, historical and sociocultural factors.

In Malaysia, Cantonese is not often written, and when it is, it’s usually in standard written Chinese (Mandarin-based grammar). Malaysians generally switch to Mandarin or English for formal writing and education. Usually, words pronounce with two vowels rather than one. For instance, liong (lee-ong) instead of leung. Another example, the tricky rounded vowel “eo” in words like “heung” is pronounced as “hee-ong” by Malaysians instead.  Malaysian Cantonese tone precision also tend to be slightly flattened or simplified, and often spoken more slowly compared to Standard Cantonese that is pvery tonal, pitch-sensitive contrasts.

Some expressions have undergone a change in meaning such as 仆街 pūk gāai, literally "fall on the street" which is commonly used in Malaysia to mean "broke/bankrupt" and is not considered a profanity unlike in Hong Kong where it is used to mean "drop dead/go to hell". Malaysian Cantonese is also characterised by the extensive use of sentence ending particles, to an even greater extent than occurs in Hong Kong Cantonese.

Cantonese remains widely spoken among Chinese Malaysians in the Klang Valley and some other urban areas. However, due to national education policies promoting Mandarin as the medium of instruction in Chinese schools, younger generation are often fluent in Mandarin but may have limited Cantonese proficiency. Cantonese remains an important part of the linguistic landscape of Malaysia. It is a rich and vibrant language that is used by many people in the country, and it continue to play a significant role in the cultural identity of the Malaysian Chinese community.

Even as a non-Cantonese speaker in Malaysia, many people grew up watching Cantonese-speaking movies and dramas especially from Hong Kong. With its unique speaking tone, Cantonese are proved to be relevant till nowadays.

Wen, W., & Wong, T. K. D. (2020, November 20). The development of Cantonese Chinese Community in the Klang Valley, 1860-1941.

Menon, J. (2018, November 5). Cantonese Spoken in Malaysia is Different Compared to in Hong Kong, Here's Why - WORLD OF BUZZ. WORLD OF BUZZ. https://worldofbuzz.com/cantonese-spoken-in-malaysia-is-different-compared-to-in-hong-kong-heres-why/

Zeng, J., & Agha, A. (2021). Cantonese as a world language: from pearl river and beyond. J. Stud. Res, 10, 1-16.

Cantonese language. (n.d.). https://www.omniglot.com/chinese/cantonese.htm

Vollmann, R., & Soon, T. W. (2018). Chinese identities in multilingual Malaysia. Grazer Linguistische Studien, 89, 35-61.

Sarawak is Malaysia’s largest state, and it is home to more than 20 indigenous group. Among the main ethnic people are Malays, Iban, The Melanau or A-Liko ethnic group is viewed as the earliest settler in Sarawak and is believed to share common origins with the Orang Ulu. Up until 2010, Melanau ethnic group estimated as many as 123,410 people making it as the fifth largest ethnic group after Iban, Chinese, Malays and Bidayuh. The Melanau people live alongside the lower reaches of the Rajang river, and spread alongside the coastal from the mouth of the Rajang to Bintulu. Melanau language belongs to the North Bornean subgroup of the Malayo-Polynesian languages. It is closely related to other Sarawak Indigenous languages, like Kedayan, Murut and Bisaya.

Traditionally, Melanau people are fishermen, Rumbia farmer and also some of them were known as a very skilled boat builder. People from Melanau ethnic group were known as orang sungai and the great sailors and seafarers long time ago. Like other ethnic group in Sarawak, Melanau once lived in traditional house called Melanau Tall House or Lubuk Regau. Nowadays the traditional house was no longer inhabitated but Melanau people still live in a group close to each other.

Language used by the Melanau is Melanau language. Melanau is an Austronesian language spoken in the coastal area of the Rajang delta on the northwest Borneo, Sarawak, Malaysia and Brunei. Uniquely, Melanau ethnic group has a lot of language used according to their own area. The diversity of races that exist in Malaysia, especially Sarawak, has created a variety of native languages. The various tribes in Sarawak use their own languages ​​when communicating. They use a language of communication that is shared, understandable, appropriate and does not cause communication problems. There are several dialects – Mukah-Oya, Balingin, Bruit, Dalat, Sarikei and others. The focus on this section is the Melanau language in general. Traditionally oral, but now written using the Latin alphabet. There is no standardized orthography, but efforts have been made in schools and local literature to preserve and teach the language.  Melanau language solely focusing in the region of Sarawak as its speakers.

Alphabet of Melanau language is the same one as Malay and English language that use Latin Alphabet as references both in speaking and writing the language. Melanau tend to be more agglutinative than Malay, meaning it uses affixes to modify meaning of words. There is also no strict standardized spelling which resulted variation in writing. As many trials of research been done, there is no clear explanation on the specific body language for Melanau languages. Half of Melanau words are loanwords from Malay language while other half is a completely different version from the original Malay words.

Apak – Father

Tuteng – Drink

Tudui – sleep

Igek – take

Badik – stupid

Ateng – very

Jawak – cute

Ngik leh iko metu? – where are you going?

Siri, H., Naim, H. M., & Ali, A. W. (2024). The Melanau folklore: An analysis of moral values. Geografia, 20(1), 155-173.

Musadat, D. M. S. A., & Bahauddin, A. (2017). The Melanau Cultural Influence in the Melanau Tall Longhouse Space Planning of Sarawak Political Buildings as Symbol of Political Culture. INTERNATIONAL TRANSACTION JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGIES, 8(4), 275-282.

Shin, C. (2020). Asal-Usul Dan Perubahan Identiti Kaum Melanau Di Sarawak: Suatu Hipotesis (The Homeland Of Melanau In Sarawak And Their Identity Shifting: A Hypothetical Review). ASIAN JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENT, HISTORY AND HERITAGE, 4(1).

Batjo, N. S., & Mis, M. A. (2022). Pemilihan Bahasa Suku Kaum Melanau Di Mukah, Sarawak. Jurnal Wacana Sarjana, 6(4), 1-15.

The Iban people are an indigenous Austronesian ethnic group native to the island of Borneo, primarily residing in the Malaysian state of Sarawak. They are part of the larger Dayak community, which encompasses various indigenous groups in Borneo. In the past, Iban trace their origins to the Kapuas Lake region in present-day West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Due to population pressures and the need for arable land, they been migrating northward in the 18^th century, crossing into Sarawak. This led them to settle along major river systems such as Saribas and Rajang Rivers. The term “Iban” is believed to have originated from the Kayan word “hivan” meaning wanderer, reflecting their migratory nature.

The Iban were traditionally known as “Sea Dayaks” by the British during colonial times, a term distinguishing them from the “Land Dayaks” (such as the Bidayuh). They are renowned for their longhouses communities, which are stilted structures housing multiple families under one roof. These longhouses serve as the centre of social and cultural life. In recent years, efforts have been made to preserve and promote the Iban language. Then, since 2024, the Iban language has been included in Google Translate under Malaysia domain enhancing its accessibility and recognition.

Language used by the Iban is Iban language or known as Jaku Iban. An indigenous Austronesian language spoken predominantly by the Iban people in north western Borneo, encompassing the Malaysian state of Sarawak, parts of Brunei, and the Indonesian province of West Kalimantan. It belongs to the Malayic subgroup of the Malayo-Polynesian branch within the Austronesian language family, making it closely related to Malay and other regional languages.

Linguistic and historical evidence suggest that the Malayic languages, including Iban, likely originated in western Borneo. The Iban language is part of the Ibanic group of languages spoken in Sarawak. Over time, the Iban language has evolved into a common language in Sarawak due to interactions with speakers of related Ibanic dialects, leading to a standardized form used across various communities. The Iban language is not only a means of communication but also a passage to knowing Iban people’s rich cultural heritage, encompassing oral literature, traditional rituals, and communal values.

The Iban language is primarily written using the Latin alphabet. However, there’s also a unique script called the Dunging Script (Urup Dunging), invented by Dunging Anak Gunggu. This script is rarely used, but it’s an important part of Iban linguistic history.  The Iban script is a semi-alphabetic script used to write the Iban language of Sarawak. Dunging Anak Gunggu invented the script in 1947, revising the initial 77 glyphs to the current 59 glyphs in 1962. However, the Iban script has not been used widely. Like Melanau, Iban also one of Sarawak ethnics that created its own native languages for communication of between in the communities.

Aba – smell

Bajik – pretty woman

Cangka – rude

Labuh – to fall

Ragak – noisy

The Iban language remains relevant today, particularly within Iban-majority regions in Sarawak and parts of West Kalimantan. However, its usage is experiencing shifts due to various sociolinguistic factors. The Iban language is still being used as it is transmitting to younger generations and used in daily communication within communities. The language is predominantly used within families and local communities, maintaining its role in daily interactions. The language is offered as an elective subject in primary and secondary schools in Sarawak, reflecting institutional support for its preservation. In conclusion, the Iban language remains an essential part of the Iban people's cultural identity.  Its relevance in modern society is maintained through coordinated efforts in education, technology, and cultural preservation, despite obstacles from dominant languages in some fields.

Metom, L., Ting, S. H., & Ling, H. N. (2021). The Iban of Sarawak, Malaysia: Ethnic Language Losing Ground to English and Sarawak Malay. Human Behavior, Development & Society, 22(3).

Antau, W. A., & Jamaludin, K. A. (2023). IBAN language in national Education: issues and challenges. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, 12(3). https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarped/v12-i3/19324

Wikipedia contributors. (2025a, April 18). Iban language. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iban_language

IBAN Language - Borneo Dictionary. (n.d.). In Borneo Dictionary. https://borneodictionary.com/iban/

The Iban People of Borneo: History, Religions, and Traditions. (2024, September 29). Sarawak Traveler. https://www.sarawaktravellers.com/culture/the-iban-people-of-borneo-history-religions-and-traditions

Simonson, T. S., Xing, J., Barrett, R., Jerah, E., Loa, P., Zhang, Y., Watkins, W. S., Witherspoon, D. J., Huff, C. D., Woodward, S., Mowry, B., & Jorde, L. B. (2011). Ancestry of the Iban is predominantly Southeast Asian: genetic evidence from autosomal, mitochondrial, and Y chromosomes. PloS one, 6(1), e16338. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0016338